Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Chapter 10
Early Childhood:
Social and Emotional Development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Influences on Development
Parents, Siblings, and Peers
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Are the Dimensions of Child Rearing?
• Warmth – Coldness
– Degree of affection and acceptance of child
– Parental warmth relates to
• Development of moral conscience
• Positive emotional and social well being
• Restrictiveness – Permissiveness
– Degree to which parents impose rules and control
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Techniques Do Parents Use to Restrict
Their Children’s Behavior?
• Induction
– Reasoning – child will understand what to do in similar situation
• Power Assertion
– “Spare the rod, spoil the child”
• Withdrawal of Love
– Threats or isolation of child
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Are the Parenting Styles Involved in the
Transmission of Values and Standards?
• Authoritative Parents
– High on Warmth, High on Restrictiveness
– Self-reliance, independence, high self-esteem and social
competence
• Authoritarian Parents
– Low on Warmth, High on Restrictiveness
– Less socially competent, lower self-reliance and self-esteem
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Are the Parenting Styles Involved in the
Transmission of Values and Standards?
• Permissive Parents
– Permissive – Indulgent
• High warmth, low restrictivenss
• Less competent in school but fairly high in social competence and selfconfidence
– Permissive – neglecting
• Low warmth, low restrictiveness
• Least competent, responsible and mature children
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Developing in a World
of Diversity
Individualism, Collectivism,
and Patterns of Child Rearing
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 The Self in Relation to Others from the Individualist and Collectivist
Perspectives
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Kinds of Influence Do Siblings Have on Social and
Personal Development in Early Childhood?
• Positive Aspects
– Cooperation
– Teaching
– Nurturance
• Negative Aspects
– Conflict
– Control
– Competition
• Siblings imitate each other
• Conflict may enhance social competence and self-identity
• As siblings age, relationship becomes more egalitarian and
conflict declines
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Kinds of Influence Do Siblings Have on Social and
Personal Development in Early Childhood?
• Adjusting to Birth of Sibling
– Both positive and negative reaction to stress of new sibling
• regression
• increased independence and maturity
• Preparation of child to new sibling shows less sibling rivalry
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Does the Research Say About the Effects of
Being a First-born or an Only Child?
• First-born children
– More highly motivated to achieve, more cooperative, adult-oriented
– Show greater anxiety, less self-reliant
– More likely to have imaginary playmate
• Later-born children
– Tend to be more popular with peers
– More rebellious, liberal and agreeable
• Parenting style may differ between first- and later-born children
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Is The Influence of Peers on Social and Personal
Development in Early Childhood?
• By age 2, children
– Imitate another’s play
– Engage in social games
– Show a preference for playmates
• Preschool friendships
– Characterized by shared, positive experiences, feelings of
attachment
– Show higher levels of interaction, prosocial behavior, positive
emotions
– Based on experiences; shared toys, activities, and fun
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Developing in a World
of Diversity
The Case of the (In)Visible Father
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Social Behaviors
In the World, Among Others
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Do Developmentalists Know About Child’s Play?
• Play based on cognitive development (Piaget, 1951, 1962)
–
–
–
–
Functional Play – repetitive motor activity
Symbolic Play – pretend play
Constructive Play – draw or make something
Formal Games – games with rules
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Do Developmentalists Know About Child’s Play?
• Six types of play (Parten, 1932)
– Nonsocial (Children do not interact)
• Unoccupied Play
• Solitary Play
• Onlooker Play
– Social (Children influenced by others as they play)
• Parallel Play
• Associative Play
• Cooperative Play
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
How Does Prosocial Behavior Develop?
• Empathy - sensitivity to the feelings of others
– From infancy, babies cry when they hear other children cry
• May be reflexive or the start of empathy
– By second year, approach others in distress and try to help
• Unresponsive empathy – more aggressive behavior in school years
– Girls show more empathy than boys
• Social learning or genetic?
• Perspective-Taking
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Influences on Prosocial Behavior
• Reinforcement of behaviors
– More positive peer response
• Responsibility
– Household chores and caring for siblings
• Observation of behaviors of peers
• Parental interactions
• Parenting style
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
How Does Aggression Develop?
• Aggression in preschoolers
– Frequently instrumental or possession-oriented
– Usually causes rejection by peers
• Aggression at 6- or 7-years
– Hostile and person-oriented
• Aggressive behavior appears to be stable over time
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Causes Aggression in Children?
• Evolutionary theory
– Struggle for survival
• Biological factors
– Genetic factors
– Testosterone
– Temperament
• Cognitive factors
– Inaccurate interpretation of others’ behavior
– Lack of empathy and perspective-taking
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Causes Aggression in Children?
• Social Learning
– Reinforcement and Observational Learning
• Media Influences
– Classic study on influence of televised models of aggression
– Television is a major source of informal observational learning
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
How Do Depictions of Violence Contribute to Aggression?
•
•
•
•
•
Observational learning
Disinhibition
Increased arousal
Priming of aggressive thoughts and memories
Habituation
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Other Factors Related to Aggression
• Violent video games
• Parental behavior
– Substance abuse
– Paternal physical punishments
– Single motherhood
• Absence of or rejection by parent
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Personality and Emotional
Development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
How Does the Self Develop During Early Childhood?
• Categorical Self – external traits
– Age groupings
– Sex
• Self-Esteem
– High value attached to themselves
• Secure attachment and mothers sensitive to their needs
• By age 4, begin evaluative judgments
– Cognitive and physical competence
– Social acceptance by peers and parents
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Erikson’s Initiative Versus Guilt
• Erikson’s stage of psychosocial development
– Strive to achieve independence from parents
– Strive to master adult behaviors
• Children begin to internalize adult rules
– Fear of violating rules may cause guilt
– Support to explore helps develop initiative
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
A Closer Look
Helping Children Cope With Fears
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Sorts of Fears Do Children Have in the Early Years?
• Number of fears peaks between 2 1/2 and 4 years
• Decline in fears of
– loud noises, falling, sudden movement and strangers
• Most likely to have fears about
– animals, imaginary creatures, the dark and personal safety
• In middle childhood, fears become more realistic
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Are There Boys’ Toys and Girls’ Toys?
• By 18-months child shows more preference for genderstereotyped toys
– Girls are more likely to stray from stereotypes
• May represent social prestige of masculine in American culture
• Gender differences in play activities
– Boys prefer vigorous outdoor, rough and tumble play
– Girls prefer arts and crafts, domestic play
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Why Do Children Show Early Gender Preferences
in Choice of Toys and Activities?
• Biological factors
– Boys – slightly greater strength and activity level
– Girls – slightly greater physical maturity and coordination
• Differences in treatment by adults
• Children seek “appropriate” labels for toys and play
– Peer, parental, adult criticism
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Why Do Children Choose to Associate With Peers
of Their Own Sex?
• Boys’ play - more oriented toward dominance, aggression and
rough play
– Girls seek out other girls to protect against this behavior
• Boys are not responsive to girls’ suggestions
– Unpleasant to interact with unresponsive playmate
• Boys may view girls as inferior
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Development of Gender Roles
and Sex Differences
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Are Stereotypes and Gender Roles?
• Behavioral expectations based on gender
• In American culture
– Feminine gender roles- dependence, gentleness, helpfulness,
warmth, emotionality, submissiveness, home-orientation
– Masculine gender roles – aggressiveness, self-confidence,
independence, competitiveness, competence in business, math and
science
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
How Do Gender Roles Develop?
• Stages of development of gender roles
– 2 - 2 1/2 years – accurate identifying pictures of boys and girls
– 3 years – display knowledge of gender stereotypes
• Traditional stereotypes about activities, occupations, personality traits
• View their own gender more positive
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Are The Origins of Sex Differences in Behavior?
• Evolution and Heredity
– Sex differences are result of natural selection, adaptation
– Survival set passed through genes (heredity)
– Result – parental investment model
• Organization of the Brain
– Hippocampus and Navigation
• Males use both hemispheres and rely on geometry
• Females use right hemisphere (with right prefrontal cortex) and rely on
landmarks
– Right-brained or Left-brained
• Left and right hemispheres more specialized in men
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What Are The Origins of Sex Differences in Behavior?
• Sex Hormones
– Prenatal influence on behavioral influences
• Social Cognitive Theory
– Observational learning and socialization
• Parental influence
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Of Gender Typing
Form concepts about gender and fit behavior to those concepts
• Gender Identity
– Knowledge that one is male or female
• Gender Stability
– People retain their sex for life
• Gender Constancy
– Sex does not change, even if people modify behavior or dress
• Conservation of gender – related to development of conservation
Once child has achieved gender stability and constancy, they seek
to behave in ways consistent with their sex
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
Bem’s Gender Schema Theory
Use sex as one way of organizing their perceptions of the world
• Gender schema - cluster of concepts about male and female
traits
• Gender identity brings gender appropriate behavior
– Child acts in ways consistent with the gender schema
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 10
What is Psychological Androgyny?
•
•
•
•
High in masculine traits only – masculine
High in feminine traits only – feminine
Neither strong masculine or feminine – undifferentiated
High in both masculine and feminine – psychologically
androgynous
– Better social relations, superior adjustment, greater creativity