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Allison Baniukiewicz
Ms. Troy
AP Literature
10 March 2014
Female Circumcision: An Indoctrinated Tradition or Self-Directed Decision
Often female circumcision is viewed solely as a violent and brutal procedure forced by
men in a patriarchic society. However, in some cases women choose to have this procedure done
for aesthetic pleasure. It is important to accurately represent the women who undergo
circumcision, and to give evidence to assumptions about female genital mutilation. This essay
will discuss and examine the four types of female circumcision and reasoning behind this
procedure, and will strive to provide an accurate representation of the viewpoints of women
affected.
Female circumcision, also referred to as female genital mutilation (FGM) , is defined by
the World Health Organization as all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external
female genitals or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons (Moeed and
Grover 1). There are four types of classifications of female circumcision. Type I is the removal
of the clitoral foreskin. Type II is the removal of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the
labia minora. Type I and II account for 80% of all cases of female circumcision (“Seven Things”
21). Type III is the removal of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the labia minora in
addition to the orificium vaginae being sewn. Type III is the most severe and leaves only a small
opening for urination and menstruation. This type, while most often mentioned, only accounts
for 10% of all FGM cases. Type IV refers to any pricking, piercing or scraping of the female
genital organs and also accounts for 10% of the cases (Utz-Billing and Kentenich 225).
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The history of female circumcision in Africa is almost non-existent. There is little
information regarding when FGM first became present in Africa. However, hieroglyphics found
by Australian pathologist Grafton Elliott Smith suggest that circumcisions were performed in
ancient Egypt dating back to 1991 BCE. The first evidence of practice outside of Egypt was by
Xanthus of Lydia who referred to “castrating their women” which refers to a form of sterilization
(Knight 326). Sir Richard Francis Burton recorded cases of FGM of the Nile in 1858 and
reported that during the colonial period, female circumcision was debated by various imperial
rulers and missionary activities in Africa (Johnsdotter 95). It has also been suggested that female
circumcision was present during the slave trade. This data allows us to assume that female
circumcision has been present in Africa for an extensive amount of time and has woven its way
into many African cultures and traditions. This could explain why so many African women
experience the procedure and consider it a rite of passage to womanhood.
Over 130 million girls and women have been affected by FGM around the world. About
2 million circumcisions are performed per year on girls of all ages. 30 of the countries where
female circumcision is performed are in Africa. This makes up the majority of the countries.
While FGM can be and is performed on all ages of women, there are specific characteristics that
increase an African’s likelihood of being circumcised. These characteristics vary depending on
the tribe, village, or cultural traditions of each woman. Typically, women selected to be
circumcised have never attended school. It has also been observed that a woman is more likely to
be selected if her mother and/or father have never attended school either. Girls who are
circumcised are usually considered sexually ripe and fall around the ages of 15-19 when they
begin to be ready for marriage (Mudege et al. 247). This is a prevalent age for female
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circumcision in Africa because for many women it is considered a passage to womanhood and is
often performed before marriage.
Female circumcision is a controversial topic that Americans often do not understand.
This is because in the United States, we rarely experience female circumcision and may not be
aware that there is a female equivalent to male circumcision. However, female circumcision is
controversial for many more reasons than our unfamiliarity with it. Often after FGM is
performed, there are complications that include severe bleeding and HIV along with other
infections. Bleeding often occurs from females who have had a Type III circumcision because of
tearing at the wound or defibulation, which is the reversal of the closure of the vagina that is
often performed before childbirth. If the bleeding is severe enough, the victim may experience
temporary or chronic anemia, and in extreme cases, death. It has been found that women that
have undergone any type of circumcision are at a higher risk for HIV. This can be due to a
number of factors, the most likely being contamination of surgical tools from previous patients.
Other infections that have been contracted after circumcision are Dysmenorrheal, a medical
condition of pain during menstrual periods that interferes with daily activities, and frequent
Urinary Tract Infections due to urine retention (Utz-Billing and Kentenich 225). These infections
and conditions are highly correlated with female circumcision (most commonly type III) and are
a prime example of the dangers of circumcising women in an improper setting.
Because FGM is considered a rite of passage to womanhood and marriage in many
countries, there is a tradition during the procedure that determines whether or not a woman is fit
for her village and/or husband. If the patient undergoing the circumcision shows signs of pain,
she may be kicked out of her family and shunned away (Utz-Billing and Kentenich 227). Women
are expected to show only signs of bravery during the ceremony in order to prove their worth to
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their elders as well as their husband. This is a cultural aspect of female circumcision and only
applies to villages and tribes who practice this particular type of circumcision; it does not apply
to all circumcisions performed in Africa.
A small yet important misconception about female circumcision in Africa is that men
control the surgery and force all women to undergo this procedure. It is believed that women do
not have control of whether or not they receive the surgery, but in most cases elderly women
control and perform the circumcisions, and men or patriarchy should not be the only people held
responsible for the mutilation of female genitals.
There are a number of reasons why female circumcisions are performed in Africa. In a
study published in 2006, 500 Nigerian women were asked why female circumcision was
performed in their country. 95% of women responded that it was for cultural or traditional
reasons, 49% claimed it encouraged faithfulness to a husband, 18% responded that it was for
aesthetic reasons, and a few other various answers were received (Utz-Billing and Kentenich
226). This information is valuable because it gives the perspective of African women who have
received the circumcision rather than leaving the reasoning behind this procedure up to
interpretation. Most women studied in Nigeria agree that the cultural aspect of FGM is
important. However, their belief in the reduction of promiscuity due to the circumcision may be
due to the repeated views of their ancestors searing into their brain. The women who believe this
may have been indoctrinated over time to have female circumcision and do it simply because
they feel it is a tradition, rather than choosing for themselves whether or not it will benefit them.
The other women who responded that they believed that without the surgery they found the
vulva to be ugly. These responses represent the women in Africa who make a self-directed
choice about whether or not they want to be circumcised. Even though this number is less
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significant than women who believe the circumcision is for traditional or marital reasons, it is
still significant enough to show that not all women in Africa are forced to be circumcised
because of a patriarchal society, and that some African women may want to be circumcised
simply for aesthetic enhancement.
Although female circumcision is present in other continents, it is most prominent in
Africa and is commonly used for traditional or cultural reasons. The four types of circumcision
all have different effects, the worst being HIV, anemia, and various other infections; however
every surgery and medical procedure has risks, and female circumcision should not be
considered wrong and harmful solely because of the possibility of disease and infection. Female
circumcision is often generalized as patriarchic and oppressive, but this is due to the
underrepresentation of the opinions of African women that undergo the surgery. The procedure is
in most cases chosen by the woman herself, and can be done for a number of reasons including
aesthetic pleasure, reduction of promiscuity, increased faithfulness to husband, or for traditional
and cultural reasons. In some cases female circumcision is indeed forced and the performed in
insufficient conditions. These cases are devastating and work is being done to help women who
are affected in this way by female circumcision, but it is also important to represent all stories
and points of view of female circumcision- not only those that are involuntary and/or botched.
Accurate media coverage and representation of women who experience the surgery can help to
bring female circumcision to the attention of the world in accordance with fact.
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Works Cited
Johnsdotter, Sarah. “Projected Cultural Histories of the Cutting of Female Genitalia: A Poor
Reflection as in a Mirror” History and Anthropology 23.1 2012: 91-114 Web. March
2014.
Knight, Mary. “Curing Cut or Ritual Mutilation? Some Remarks on the Practice of Female and
Male Circumcision in Graceo-Roman Egypt” Isis 2001: 317-338 Web. March 2014.
Moeed, Saman M., Sonia R. Grover. “Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C): Survey of
RANZCOG Fellows, Diplomates & Trainees and FGM/C Prevention and Education
Program Workers in Australia and New Zealand” Australian and New Zealand Journal of
Obstetrics and Gynecology 2012: 523-527 Web. March 2014.
Mudege, Netsayi Noris. Thaddeus Egondi, Donatien Beguy and Eliya M. Zulu “The
Determinants of Female Circumcision Among Adolescents From Communities That
Practice Female Circumcision in Two Nairobi Informal Settlements” Health Sociology
Rev 2012: 242-250 Web. March 2014.
The Public Policy Advisory Network ON Female Genital Surgeries in Africa. “Seven Things to
Know about Female Genital Surgeries in Africa” Hastings Center Report 2012: 19-27
Web. March 2014.
Utz-Billing, I. Kentenich, H. “Female Genital Mutilation: An Injury, Physical and Mental Harm”
Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology 2008: 225-229 Web. March 2014.
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Allie Baniukiewicz
AP English Literature
Troy
20 March 2014
A. Johnsdotter, Sarah. “Projected Cultural Histories of the Cutting of Female Genetalia: A Poor
Reflection as in a Mirror” History and Anthropology 23.1 2012: 91-114 Web. March
2104.
B. Sarah Johnsdotter obtained her PhD in sociology and is a professor in health and science and
medical anthropology. Her research focuses mainly on female circumcision, genital
modifications, sexuality, and medical anthropology.
C. In this paper Johnsdotter discusses the available history of female genital cutting and
surgeries. It also attempts to connect history with modern practices, and explain the development
of and reasoning for female circumcision over time.
D. “Early mentions of female circumcision in Africa are brief and it is difficult to estimate their
reliability.” Because early accounts of female circumcision are so rare it is hard to grasp an
understanding of how the practice began. This may be one of the reasons the procedure is still so
difficult for some people to understand even today- because very few people know and grasp the
concept fully from when the ritual began to the present.
E. “In many societies, male and female circumcision are regarded as symmetrical practices. It
has been suggested that in these societies, female circumcision was often introduced in imitation
of the male ritual” This quote refers to the early practices of circumcision in Africa, specifically
Sierra Leone. I found this interesting because male and female circumcision were once
considered equal, yet only some cultures practice female circumcision, and other only practice
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male circumcision. I would be curious to know the factors that influence whether a country
chooses to adopt the tradition of male or female circumcision and what about Africa created such
a common practice of female circumcision.
F. “The clitoris became a highly politicized part of the body within the feminist movement and
consequently, all (African) practices involving cutting of the female genitalia were interpreted as
patriarchal attacks on women.” This excerpt gives reasoning behind why female genital surgeries
are considered patriarchal attacks on women. This was significant to my research because I
strived to represent all interpretations of female circumcision and this excerpt is a prime example
of false generalizations of female genital surgeries in Africa.
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Allie Baniukiewicz
AP English Literature
Troy
20 March 2014
A. The Public Policy Advisory Network on Female Genital Surgeries in Africa. “Seven Things
to Know about Female Genital Surgeries in Africa” Hastings Center Report 2012: 19-27 Web.
March 2014.
B. Information Unavailable
C. The aim of this article is to discuss the media coverage of female circumcision. The authors
choose to take a non-collective stance of this issue in order to create a more accurate
representation of female circumcision cases and facts. This sums up many misconceptions
regarding media coverage and fact checking in seven sections.
D. “Female genital surgeries in Africa are viewed by many insiders as aesthetic enhancements of
the body and are not judged to be ‘mutilations.’” I found this quote interesting because it
perceives some cases of female circumcision in a similar way to how many women perceive
plastic surgery. When I came across this excerpt, I imagined women in Africa hearing about
strange surgeries and injections that women in other countries receive to make themselves
younger, thinner, and even bigger in some places. What if African women imagined men forcing
women to undergo these surgeries when in reality they are simply aesthetically pleasing, just as
we imagine female circumcisions in Africa?
E. “Female genital surgery in Africa is typically controlled and managed by women.” This is
another quote challenging generalizations about female circumcision that many people from
countries that do not practice this procedure experience. It reveals that even though men are
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believed to force and control the surgeries, women are usually making the decisions for
themselves about whether or not they want to undergo surgery, women in the community may
influence the decisions of girls who may undergo the surgery, and women often perform the
procedure.
F. “A high percentage of women who have had genital surgery have rich sexual lives, including
desire, arousal, orgasm, and satisfaction, and their frequency of sexual activity is not reduced.” I
found this quote interesting because many women who undergo female circumcision do so in
order to reduce promiscuity and increase faithfulness to their husbands. However, if the women
who have been circumcised often continue to be aroused and do not reduce their sexual activity,
how is this reasoning valid? It is strongly believed by the elders of communities that the surgery
will lead to less sexually active women, so the young women in Africa could be deceiving not
only their husbands, but the community about the effects of female circumcision.
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Allie Baniukiewicz
AP English Literature
Troy
20 March 2014
A. Utz-Billing, I. Kentenich, H. “Female Genital Mutilation: An Injury, Physical and Mental
Harm” Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology 2008: 225-229 Web. March
2014.
B. Kentenich is a doctor and professor whose clinical focus is on fertility treatment, reproductive
medicine, gynecological endocrinology, and psychosomatic gynecology. He works at the fertility
center of Berlin. Dr. Utz-Billing works at the German Red Cross Hospital. Her work focuses on
gynecology and obstetrics.
C. This article works to give an overview of the topic of female circumcision. It provides
information on the history, causes, effects, and opinions of female genital mutilation.
D. “Elderly women mostly perform FGM without any medical knowledge.” This quote is
significant because it reveals faults in the assumption that female circumcision is due to the
oppression of women and patriarchy. Because most people believe these assumptions about
FGM practices in Africa, this quote inspired me to research the under-represented experiences
with female circumcision as well as to disprove any misconceptions.
E. “95% answered that FGM is performed for cultural and traditional reasons; 49% claimed that
FGM helps to prevent promiscuity; 18% found that the not mutilated vulva is ugly; 11% thought
that FGM prevents the death of male newborns; 9% reported pressure of relatives as a reason to
perform FGM.” This quote, like the previous one, reveals significant information about female
circumcision that would not be expected by cultures unfamiliar with the procedure. This data
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explain that most women who were interviewed in this study found that female circumcision was
not forced and reported that their reasons were not because of peer pressure. This shows what a
huge misconception female circumcision really is and how it is perceived in a more harsh and
violent way than it truly is.
F. “In some communities, the mutilated genital is a symbol of feminity, of transition from girl to
woman and of beauty [8].” Previous to my knowledge of female circumcision I would not expect
a “mutilated genital” to symbolize beauty or celebrate feminity. However, after researching and
coming across this quote, I am able to better understand the points of view of women who
undergo this procedure to transform to a woman or for aesthetic reasons. Many women in Africa
view the circumcision process just as many women in America view plastic surgery, dieting, or
strange exercise habits. Female circumcision in Africa represents the same values as
menstruation or other growing-up symbols in America. This quote creates a connection between
women in Africa and in developed countries who do not practice female circumcision.