MODES OF PERSUASION
Logos: logical appeal; uses facts, based on the validity of the arguments appeals
based on reasoning supported with facts, statistics, and other concrete
evidence (ex: You should save money now so you can buy something later).
Pathos: emotional appeal; tugs at the feelings of the audience, affects the
audience’s frame of mind
(path=feeling)- appeals based on feelings such as sympathy, anger, pity,
fear (ex: You should adopt an animal from the animal shelter, otherwise it
might be euthanized).
Ethos: personal appeal; based on the persona of the writer, depends on the
established credibility of the speaker
appeals based on morality, values, character, justice, credibility (ex: We
listen to our doctor’s when they tell us to do something related to our
health because they have a medical degree and therefore are qualified).
FALLACIES
Definition of a fallacy:
1. a deceptive, misleading, or false notion, belief, etc.
(The world being flat was at one time a popular
fallacy).
2. a misleading or unsound argument.
*For every type of appeal, there are logical and
illogical means used to persuade.
LOGOS FALLACIES
Sweeping Generalization
An argument based on the assumption that all people, situations, or events of a
kind are the same
The leader of the committee was a freshman, and she wasn't very responsible. Freshman aren't
prepared to lead a committee.
Straw Man
Substituting a person’s actual position or argument with a distorted,
exaggerated, or misrepresented version of the position of the argument.
Logical Form:
Person 1 makes claim Y.
Person 2 restates person 1’s claim (in a distorted way).
Person 2 attacks the distorted version of the claim.
Therefore, claim Y is false.
EVEN MORE LOGOS FALLACIES
Non Sequitur
A conclusion that does not logically follow from the previous statement or
evidence. No logical connection between two parts of an argument.
Logical Form:
Claim A is made.
Evidence is presented for Claim A.
Therefore, claim C is true.
People generally like to walk on the beach. Beaches have sand. Therefore, having
sand floors in homes would be a great idea!
Red Herring
Presents an irrelevant topic to divert attention away from the original issue.
"We admit that this measure is popular. But we also urge you to note that there are so
many bond issues on this ballot that the whole thing is getting ridiculous."
AND MORE LOGOS…
Weak analogy
When an analogy is used to prove or disprove an argument, but the
analogy is too dissimilar to be effective, that is, it is unlike the
argument more than it is like the argument. Comparing two
situations, people, objects, etc. that aren’t quite alike
Philosophy 101 is a philosophy class and has many discussions; logic is a
philosophy class. So, it must also have many discussions.
Logical Form: Ex: A is like B.
B has property P.
Therefore, A has property P.
(Analogy between A and B is weak)
LAST LOGOS
False dichotomy (AKA: either-or fallacy or false dilemma)
When only two choices are presented yet more exist, or a spectrum of possible
choices exists between two extremes. False dilemmas are usually characterized by
“either this or that” language, but can also be characterized by omissions of
choices.
Either you’re with me, or against me.
You love me, or you hate me.
Either you will support our plan to improve our school, or you obviously don't care about our
school
Formula: Either claim X is true, or claim Y is true (when X and Y could both
be false).
Claim Y is false
Therefore, claim X is true.
PATHOS FALLACIES
Slippery Slope
One small event has tremendously exaggerated consequences.
A ban on assault rifles is one step away from repealing the 2nd amendment.
Take one sip of alcohol in high school, and you’ll be an alcoholic by age 30.
A popular example of the slippery slope fallacy is, "If we legalize marijuana, the next
thing you know we'll legalize heroin, LSD, and crack cocaine." This slippery slope is a
form of non sequitur, because no reason has been provided for why legalization of one thing
leads to legalization of another.
Appeal to pity
Gets you to accept something by making you feel sorry for someone.
Ex: I should receive an A in this class. After all, if I don’t get an A I won’t be
able to play baseball.
PATHOS FALLACIES
Scare Tactics (AKA: Appeal to fear)
When fear, not based on evidence or reason, is being used as the primary motivator to
get others to accept an idea, proposition, or conclusion. Exaggerated threats.
Logical Form:
If you don’t accept X as true, something terrible will happen to you.
Therefore, X must be true.
Ex: If we don’t bail out the big automakers, the US economy will collapse. Therefore, we need to
bail out the automakers.
Ex: Timmy: Mom, what if I don’t believe in God?
Mom: Then you burn in Hell forever. Why do you ask?
Timmy: No reason.
Panda Scare Tactics Commercial
MORE PATHOS …
Ad populum (appeal to popularity or hopping on the bandwagon)
Using the popularity of a premise or proposition as evidence for its
truthfulness. This is a fallacy which is very difficult to spot because our “common
sense” tells us that if something is popular, it must be good/true/valid, but this is
not so, especially in a society where clever marketing, social and political weight, and
money can buy popularity.
Logical Form:
A lot of people believe X.
Therefore, X must be true.
Ex: Up until the late 16th century, most people believed that the earth was the
center of the universe. This, of course, is not true.
ETHOS FALLACIES
Dogmatism
Holding something as true without factual foundation, proof, or
consideration for alternative views. Intolerant religious stances are often
dogmatic.
When a child asks why, the parent says “because I said so!”
It’s true because it’s true (rather than I have faith that it’s true because I believe …)
MORE ETHOS FALLACIES
Ad Hominem
Character attack. A person makes one mistake, and they are a bad person
in every other area of their life. This attack the person instead of the
issue.
You got a ticket for speeding; therefore you are a bad person who should never be allowed to
drive, ride a bike, marry, or run for mayor.
We can't support his proposal to improve mass transit. After all, he left his wife for a younger
woman.
MORE ETHOS
Appeal to (doubtful) authority
The reference to an "expert" who actually is not qualified to speak
with authority on the issue
Name dropping to impress readers/viewers
According to actor Brad Pitt, our economic policy has been a complete failure.
Ex: I’m not a doctor, but I play one on the hit series “Bimbos and Studmuffins.”
You can take it from me, that when you need a fast-acting, effective, and safe pain
killer there is nothing better than morphidope 2000. That is my considered medical
opinion.
Formula: Person A is (claimed to be) an authority on subject S.
Person A makes claim C about subject S.
Therefore, C is true.
HOW TO FIND FALLACIES
IN YOUR WRITING
Pretend you disagree with the conclusion you're defending. What
parts of the argument would now seem fishy to you? What parts would
seem easiest to attack? Give special attention to strengthening those
parts.
List your main points; under each one, list the evidence you have for
it. Seeing your claims and evidence laid out this way may make you
realize that you have no good evidence for a particular claim, or it may
help you look more critically at the evidence you're using.
Learn which types of fallacies you're especially prone to, and be
careful to check for them in your work. Some writers make lots of
appeals to authority; others are more likely to rely on weak analogies.
Make sure when you are refuting an opposing point of view, that you
are making logically sound arguments. 
HOW TO FIND FALLACIES
Be aware that broad claims need more proof than narrow ones.
Claims that use sweeping words like "all," "no," "none," "every,"
"always," "never," "no one," and "everyone" are sometimes
appropriate—but they require a lot more proof than lesssweeping claims that use words like "some," "many," "few,"
"sometimes," "usually," and so forth.
Double check your characterizations of others, especially your
opponents, to be sure they are accurate and fair.
FALLACIES PRACTICE
Directions: For each example, identify the type of fallacy.
1. "Since 88% of people polled believe in UFOs, they
must exist.”
2. "Andrea Dworkin has written several books arguing
that the media harms women when it comes to body
image. But Dworkin is an ugly, bitter person, so you
shouldn't listen to her."
3. "I know the exam is graded based on performance,
but you should give me an A. My cat has been sick, my
car broke down, and I've had a cold, so it was really
hard for me to study!"
LOGICAL FALLACIES PRACTICE
Directions: For each example, identify the type of fallacy.
4."My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the
one I'm in is hard, too. All philosophy classes must be hard!"
5. "President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of violent
crime went up. Jones is responsible for the rise in crime."
6. "Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. If we
don't respect life, we are likely to be more and more tolerant of
violent acts like war and murder. Soon our society will become
a battlefield in which everyone constantly fears for their lives.
It will be the end of civilization. To prevent this terrible
consequence, we should make animal experimentation illegal
right now."
FALLACIES PRACTICE
Directions: For each example, identify the type of fallacy.
7. "If I fail English 101, I won't be able to graduate. If I don't
graduate, I probably won't be able to get a good job, and I may
very well end up doing temp work or flipping burgers for the
next year."
8. "Guns are like hammers—they're both tools with metal
parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it would be
ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers—so restrictions
on purchasing guns are equally ridiculous."
9. "We should abolish the death penalty. Many respected
people, such as actor Guy Handsome, have publicly stated
their opposition to it."
FALLACIES PRACTICE
10. "Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it
down and put up a new building, or we continue to
risk students' safety. Obviously we shouldn't risk
anyone's safety, so we must tear the building down."