CarEcology:
New Technological and Ecological Standards
in Automotive Engineering
Green Fuels
The effects of ethanol
on internal combustion engines
Merkouris Gogos
Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki
Department of Vehicles
Antwerp, October 2009
Green Fuels: The effects of ethanol on
internal combustion engines
1. Biofuels - Introduction
2. Bioethanol production
3. Ethanol use in petrol fuelled vehicles
4. Ethanol use in Diesel fuelled vehicles
5. Study on the effects of ethanol
CarEcology: New Technological and Ecological Standards in Automotive Engineering
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Green Fuels: The effects of ethanol on internal
combustion engines
Biofuels
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Why Green Fuels ?
 Crude oil reserves are rapidly diminishing
 Crude oil prices increase
 Greenhouse effect
enhancement due to human activity
 GHG emissions
 Deforestation
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The final countdown
Projected World Crude Oil Production
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The end of cheap oil
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Atmospheric CO2 increase
For 10000 years the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere
was fixed at 280 ppm.
400
380
CO2 ppm
360
340
320
300
260
1700
1750
1800
1850
1900
1950
2000
2050
έτος
Since the industrial revolution, CO2 increased by 36%.
Between 2000 and 2007, atmospheric CO2 concentration grew
by an average of 2 ppm per year.
CarEcology: New Technological and Ecological Standards in Automotive Engineering
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World Resources Institute, 2007
280
7
The greenhouse effect
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The enhanced greenhouse effect
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The Carbon Cycle
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UNFCCC, 2008
Land-Use Change
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
for Brazil in CO2 equivalent
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Green Fuels: The effects of ethanol on internal
combustion engines
Bioethanol
Production
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Bioethanol Production Paths
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Bioethanol Production Paths
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Ethanol production process
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Energy Balance of Ethanol
1/2
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Energy Balance of Ethanol
2/2
Cereals
Wood
Wheat straw
Sugar beet
Sucarcane
0
1
2
4
6
8
Energy balance (output/input)
10
12
Macedo et al., 2004, USDA, 2001, 2002 & DTI 2003
Corn
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Production cost (2006)
Sugarcane (Brazil)
Cellulose
Cereals (E.U.)
Petrol (wholesale)
Synthesis fuel (F-T)
0.00
Current
0.20
Future
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
Euro per litre of equivalent petrol
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Worldwatch Institute, 2006
Corn (U.S.A..)
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Bioethanol GHG emissions
Reduction in GHG emissions compared to petrol
19%
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
28%
52%
The percent change in
GHGs for corn ethanol can range
from 54% decrease for a
biomass-fired dry mill plant to
a 4 % increase for a coal-fired
wet mill plant (EPA, 2007)
78%
Fuel
Petrol
Energy
used
Fossil
fuels
Corn ethanol
Current
Average
Natural
Gas
Biomass
Sugarcane
ethanol
Cellulosic
ethanol
Biomass
Biomass
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U.S. DoE, 2007
86%
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Bioethanol production 2007
4%
4%
4%
50%
U.S.A.
Brazil
E.U.
China
Rest of the world
F.O.Licht, 2008
38%
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Bio-fuels consumption in EU in 2007
Other
Bioethanol
EurObserv’ER, 2008
Biodiesel
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Bioethanol production in EU in 2008
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2003/30/EC Directive
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Bioethanol production in Europe
Corn
8%
Wine industry
7%
Cereals
44%
Sugar beets
24%
Feedstock shares
Strube-Dieckman, 2007
Other
17%
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Green Fuels: The effects of ethanol on internal
combustion engines
Ethanol use in
petrol fuelled vehicles
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Ethanol is not a new idea!
1826
1860
1896
1908
1920s
1945
1973
1975
2003
Samuel Morey
Nicholas Otto
Henry Ford Quadricycle
Ford Model T
Petrol is the fuel of choice
End of WWII
Oil Crisis
Brazil “Proalcohol” programme
EU Directive 2003/30 promotes
the use of Bio-Fuels
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Properties
Property
Comment
Vapour density
Ethanol vapour, like petrol vapour, is denser than
air and tends to settle in low areas.
However, ethanol vapour disperses rapidly.
Water Solubility Fuel ethanol will mix with water, but at high
enough concentrations of water, ethanol will
separate from petrol.
Flame visibility
The flame of ethanol/petrol blends is less bright
than the flame of petrol flame but it is visible in
the daylight.
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Properties
Property
Comment
Specific gravity Pure ethanol and ethanol/petrol blends are
heavier than petrol.
Toxicity
Ethanol is less toxic than petrol or methanol.
Carcinogenic compounds are not present in pure
ethanol; however, because petrol is used in the
blend, E85 is considered potentially carcinogenic.
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Ethanol properties effecting IC engines










oxygen content
octane rating
energy density (heating value)
water solubility
latent heat of vaporization
ratio of product gases to reactants
blending with petrol
volatility
flame temperature and laminar flame speed
materials compatibility
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Oxygen content
1/2
Alcohols, unlike petroleum-based products, contain a
significant amount of oxygen as a basic component in their
molecular structure
Ethanol C2H5OH
Composition by weight
Ethanol
Petrol
Diesel
Carbon
52.2%
85-88%
84-87%
Hydrogen
13.1%
12-15%
13-16%
Oxygen
34.7%
0
0
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Oxygen content
2/2
 allows leaner fuel/air ratios
 more complete combustion
(less CO emissions)
C2H5OH + 3 O2  3 H2O + 2 CO2
Stoichiometric A/F ratios
Petrol
Diesel
Ethanol
E85
14.7
14.6
9.0
9.7
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Octane rating
1/2
150
RON
140
129
130
MON
119
120
119
112.5
111
110
100
90
112
111
105.5
103
96
(R+M)/2
103
99
92
87
82
80
70
Unleaded
Regular
MTBE
Ethanol
TAME
ETBE
 Higher than petrol  reduces engine knock
 Allows higher compression rates  engine power increases
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Octane rating
2/2
Base petrol octane increase with ethanol blending
Base petrol octane rating
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Energy density
1/2
 lower energy density than petrol
Ethanol:
26750 kJ/kg
Petrol:
43000 kJ/kg
contains about 35% less energy
 fewer km per litre
 need for larger fuel tanks
Ethanol
Petrol
or more frequent refuelling
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Energy density
2/2
For blends with ethanol concentration up to 60% the energy
losses (20%) can be compensated by engine improvements
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Water solubility
 low molecular mass
Ethanol
46.07 g
Petrol
100-105 g
Diesel
200 g approx.
1/4
C2H5OH
 100% soluble in water
 highly polar compound
If a small amount of water is present
in an ethanol/petrol blend,
the phases of the liquids are separated
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Water solubility
2/4
Tanknology, Inc.
Phase separation in an underground tank
Εργαστήριο Μ.Ε.Κ. ΙΙ
Σίνδος, Νοέμβριος 2008
37
Water solubility
3/4
Blend
30% Alcohol
65% Petrol
5% Water
At temperatures
below 20 ºC
phase separation
is observed
For smaller fractions
of ethanol, much
smaller quantities of
water are required to
cause phase
separation
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Water solubility
4/4
Less than a
teaspoon (5ml)
per litre
15 ºC
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Implications of phase separation
Phase separation of blends can lead to fuel line
freezing or poor drivability.
In flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs), the presence of
water in the fuel mixture can cause the optical
fuel sensor to malfunction, which could lead to
drivability problems.
This problem can be effectively controlled by the
use of chemical additives.
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Latent heat of vaporization
 much higher than petrol
Ethanol: 842-930 kJ/kg
Petrol:
330-400 kJ/kg
 increases engine power
 increases the efficiency of the engine
 cold start problems
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Ratio of product gases to reactants
 higher than petrol H/C ratio
Ethanol:
Petrol:
0.25 w/w
~0.15 w/w
 ethanol produces a greater volume of gases per
energy unit combusted
 higher mean cylinder pressures
 produces about 7% more work (Bailey, 1996)
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Blending with petrol
Volume expansion for ethanol-petrol blends
The output volume is greater than the sum of the volumes of the two liquids
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Volatility
Ethanol
RVP=15-17 kPa
Petrol:
RVP=50-100 kPa
Environmental
impacts
Furey, 1985
Blends with low
ethanol
percentage have
higher volatility
than petrol!
Effect of ethanol concentration
on Reid vapour pressure
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Volatility of ethanol/petrol blends
 High volatility values contribute to the
formation of too much vapour which can
cause a decrease in fuel flow to the
engine
 The symptoms can be loss of power or
even the engine stopping
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Flame temperature
 slightly lower than petrol
Ethanol: 1930 ºC
Petrol:
1977 ºC
 higher thermal efficiency
(reduced heat losses from the engine)
 lower NOx emissions
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Brusstar & Bakenhus, 2005
Laminar flame speed
The laminar flame speed of ethanol is higher than petrol
for any Fuel-Air Equivalence ratio
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Performance
(of optimized ethanol engines)
 Higher fuel and tank weight:
1% loss of the transport efficiency
 Greater volume of combustion gas products:
7% gain compared with petrol,
1% compared with Diesel fuel
 Higher octane rating:
6% to 10% gain against petrol
no difference against Diesel.
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Performance
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Performance
Brake torque and brake power
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Performance
Fuel consumption
Fuel consumption [g/km]
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Toyota
Yaris
Vauxhall
Omega
Fiat
Punto
Petrol
Volkswagen
Golf
Rover
416
Toyota
Yaris
E10
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Performance
Drivability
 cold start problems
due to the higher vaporization energy of the blends
 hot start problems
due to vapour locking conditions caused by the
increased volatility of ethanol blends
 under normal temperature conditions
these drawbacks do not occur
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Performance of ethanol blends
140%
120%
105.5%
89.3%
95.5%
105.3%
103.2%
106.4%
102.1%
40%
110.0%
60%
103.3%
80%
129.4%
100%
20%
0%
Power
Ισχύς
Torque
Ροπή
Ε0
Maximum
Μέγιστη
speed
ταχύτητα
Ε22
Acceleration
Επιτάχυνση Consumption
Κατανάλωση
(0-100km/h)
(L/100km)
(0~100km/h)
(L/100km)
Ε100
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Important design parameters

compression ratio
increasing CR increases fuel economy
tendency to knock & higher NOx emissions

combustion chamber design
centrally located spark plug, 4-5 valves,
high turbulence swirl etc.

valve timing
higher valve overlap (performance at high speeds)
smaller valve overlap (lower emissions at idle)

fuel management
fuel injection has shown favorable results over
carburetion when used in an alcohol burning engine
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Key operating parameters

equivalence ratio (=1/λ)
lower equivalence ratio (lean burn conditions)
better thermal efficiency
lower HC & CO emissions
higher NOx emissions

spark advance
the influence of ignition timing on fuel consumption
is opposite to the influence on pollutant emissions

exhaust gas recirculation
increasing amount of EGR decreases NOx emissions
but increases HC emissions and fuel consumption
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Performance
Petrol
E85
Power [bhp]
150
180
Torque [Nm]
240
280
0-100 km/h [s]
9.8
8.5
14.9
12.6
80-120 km/h
5th gear [s]
Saab 9-5 2.0lt BioPower
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Exhaust emissions
Regulated emissions

CO


HC


NOx

(depends on the ethanol concentration)
Greenhouse Gas

CO2

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Exhaust emissions
Unregulated emissions

methanol & ethanol


formaldehyde


acetaldehyde


methyl & ethyl nitrite 

benzene


toluene


particulate matter

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Exhaust emissions
2.5
CO [g/km]
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Toyota
Yaris
Vauxhall
Omega
Fiat
Punto
Petrol
Volkswagen
Golf
Rover
416
Toyota
Yaris
E10
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Exhaust emissions
0.08
0.07
THC [g/km]
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
Toyota
Yaris
Vauxhall
Omega
Fiat
Punto
Petrol
Volkswagen
Golf
Rover
416
Toyota
Yaris
E10
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Exhaust emissions
0.4
0.35
NOx [g/km]
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Toyota
Yaris
Vauxhall
Omega
Fiat
Punto
Petrol
Volkswagen
Golf
Rover
416
Toyota
Yaris
E10
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Exhaust emissions
3
Acetaldehyde [g/km]
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Toyota
Yaris
Vauxhall
Omega
Fiat
Punto
Petrol
Volkswagen
Golf
Rover
416
Toyota
Yaris
E10
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Exhaust emissions
5
4.5
4
PM [g/km]
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Toyota
Yaris
Vauxhall
Omega
Fiat
Punto
Petrol
Volkswagen
Golf
Rover
416
Toyota
Yaris
E10
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Evaporative emissions
5%
27%
68%
Exhaust pipe
Evaporative
Refuelling
Brusstar & Bakenhus, 2005
Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs) from
petrol fuelled vehicles in
W. Europe
Ethanol/petrol blends:
• VOC emissions increase due to the higher Reid vapour pressure
• Higher permeability due to the smaller molecule of ethanol
• Commingling effect
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Material compatibility
Ethanol is more corrosive than petrol
Materials that are degraded by high concentration ethanol blends
Metallic:
brass
aluminum
lead-plated steel
Non metallic:
natural rubber
polyurethane
cork
leather
PVC
polyamides
certain plastics
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Material compatibility
Compatible materials that should be used
Metallic:
hard anodized aluminum
steel & stainless steel
black iron
bronze
Non metallic:
polymer compounds
neoprene rubber
fiberglass
thermoplastics
polypropylene
Teflon
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Necessary modifications for Otto engines
Cold Start System
Exhaust System
Intake Manifold
Motor Oil
Basic Engine
Catalytic Converter
Fuel Tank
Evaporative System
Ignition System
Fuel Filter
Fuel Pressure Device
Fuel Pump
Fuel Injection
Carburetor
Ethanol
Content in
the Fuel
≤ 5%
5 ~ 10%
10 ~ 25%
25 ~ 85%
≥ 85%
Not Necessary
Probably Necessary
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1.6L mpi 4spd Automatic 1997
85 060 km
1.3L mpi 3spd Autom. 1996
125 811 km
Engine deposits
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Engine deposits
1997 Toyota Hilux 2.4L Carburetor
115 418 km
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Fuel system performance
1997 Toyota Hilux 2.4L Carburetor [115 418 km]
Fuel Filter blocked after E5 for 20000 km and E10 for 10000 km
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Auto Manufacturer Warranty Excerpts
BMW: Fuels containing up to and including 10% ethanol or other
oxygenates with up to 2.8% oxygen by weight (i.e. 15% MTBE or 3%
methanol) plus an equivalent amount of co-solvent) will not void the
applicable warranties with respect to defects in materials or workmanship.
Honda: ETHANOL (ethyl or grain alcohol) - You may use petrol containing
up to 10 percent ethanol by volume.
Hyundai: Gasohol (a mixture of 90% unleaded petrol and 10% ethanol or
grain alcohol) may be used in your Hyundai.
Mazda: Petrol blended with oxygenates such as alcohol or ether
compounds are generally referred to as oxygenated fuels. The common
petrol blend that can be used with your vehicle is ethanol blended at no
more than 10%.
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Auto Manufacturer Warranty Excerpts
Mercedes: Unleaded petrol containing oxygenates such as Ethanol, IPA,
IBA, and TBA can be used provided the ratio of any one of these
oxygenates to petrol does not exceed 10%, MTBE not to exceed 15%.
Toyota: Toyota allows the use of oxygenate blended petrol where the
oxygenate content is up to 10% ethanol or 15% MTBE. If you use gasohol
in your Toyota, be sure that it has an octane rating no lower than 87.
VW/Audi: Use of petrol containing alcohol or MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl
ether)
You may use unleaded petrol blended with alcohol or MTBE (commonly
referred to as oxygenates) if the blended mixture meets the following
criteria: Blend of petrol and ethanol (grain alcohol or ethyl alcohol) Antiknock index must be 87 AKI or higher. -Blend must not contain more
than 10% ethanol.
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Green Fuels: The effects of ethanol on internal
combustion engines
Ethanol use in
Diesel fuelled vehicles
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e-Diesel
 Blending Diesel fuel with ethanol is a relatively new
idea compared to the petrol-ethanol blends.
 These blends are referred as e-Diesel and there has
been growing interest since the early 1980s.
 The main reasons for using such blends are reduced
dependence on petroleum and a reduction of some
specific exhaust emissions.
 Usually, the ethanol concentration is between 10%
and 15%.
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e-Diesel
Points to be considered for Diesel-ethanol blends:
1. Diesel and ethanol do not mix at temperatures below
10ºC. In order to overcome this drawback, emulsifiers
or solvents are used in the blend.
2. Higher risk of fire or explosion than with Diesel on its
own. (use of flame arresters, electrical grounding of
the tanks, common grounding of the vehicle and the
fuel pump during refueling and use of intrinsically safe
level detectors in the fuel tanks).
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e-Diesel
3. e-Diesel has lower viscosity and lubricity (might have
negative effects on C.I. internal combustion engines)
but the research indicates that e-Diesel meets Diesel
specifications The corrosiveness of e-Diesel is similar
to pure Diesel and has the same effects on the engine
components.
4. Ethanol has cetane number 8, which compared to the
cetane number for Diesel (around 50) is very low.
Therefore, because ethanol-Diesel blends have a
decreased tendency to auto ignite, cetane enhancing
additives must be used.
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e-Diesel
5. e-Diesel decreases engine power. Studies show that
for ethanol percentages of between 10-15%, there is a
reduction in power of 4-10%.
6. The effects on exhaust emissions are similar to the
petrol blends.
 Reduction of CO 20% - 30%
 Reduction of particulate matter 20% - 40%
 No difference in NOx emissions
 Increase of HC emissions
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Flash point
Diesel
E-Diesel
Ethanol
Petrol
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
NREL, 2003
Methanol
Temperature ο C
At common ambient temperatures, the vapor in a storage tank or vehicle
fuel tank containing e-Diesel is flammable or explosive. The classification of
the fuel needs to be changed from Class II (fuel) to Class I (flammable).
Thus, the current diesel fuel infrastructure could not be used to handle e-Diesel.
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Green Fuels: The effects of ethanol on internal
combustion engines
Study on
the effects of ethanol
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Ethanol Lab tests
Location:
TEI of Thessaloniki, Vehicles Dept., I.C.E. II Lab
Test Vehicle:
Ford Escort 1.3 L Carburetor (no cat.)
Test Fuels:
Petrol New Super (E0), E10, E20, E50
Chassis dynamometer data:
Brake Torque
Brake Power
Revolutions per minute
Atmospheric pressure and air temperature
Gas analyzer data:
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Hydrocarbons (HC)
Oxygen (O2)
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Balance data:
Fuel consumption
Calculated values:
Combustion chamber pressure
Lambda (λ)
Specific fuel consumption
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Lab tests
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Power
30
POWER kW
25
20
E0
15
E10
E20
10
E50
5
0
2nd Gear
30km/h @2070rpm
3rd Gear
4th Gear
50 km/h @2320rpm
90 km/h @3100rpm
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Torque
100
TORQUE Nm
80
60
E0
E10
40
E20
E50
20
0
2nd Gear
30km/h @2070rpm
3rd Gear
4th Gear
50 km/h @2320rpm
90 km/h @3100rpm
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Lambda
1.2
1.1
LAMBDA
1.0
E0
0.9
E10
E20
0.8
E50
0.7
0.6
2nd Gear
30km/h @2070rpm
3rd Gear
4th Gear
50 km/h @2320rpm
90 km/h @3100rpm
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Specific fuel consumption
0.50
SFC kg/kWh
0.45
E0
0.40
E10
E20
E50
0.35
0.30
2nd Gear
30km/h @2070rpm
3rd Gear
4th Gear
50 km/h @2320rpm
90 km/h @3100rpm
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Fuel consumption
FUEL CONSUMPTION L/100km
40
30
E0
20
E10
E20
E50
10
0
2nd Gear
30km/h @2070rpm
3rd Gear
4th Gear
50 km/h @2320rpm
90 km/h @3100rpm
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Carbon Dioxide
20.0
CO 2 %vol
15.0
E0
10.0
E10
E20
E50
5.0
0.0
2nd Gear
30km/h @2070rpm
3rd Gear
4th Gear
50 km/h @2320rpm
90 km/h @3100rpm
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Carbon Monoxide
12.0
10.0
CO %vol
8.0
E0
6.0
E10
E20
4.0
E50
2.0
0.0
2nd Gear
30km/h @2070rpm
3rd Gear
4th Gear
50 km/h @2320rpm
90 km/h @3100rpm
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Hydrocarbons
300
250
HC ppm
200
E0
150
E10
E20
100
E50
50
0
2nd Gear
30km/h @2070rpm
3rd Gear
4th Gear
50 km/h @2320rpm
90 km/h @3100rpm
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Nitrogen Oxides
2500
NO x ppm
2000
1500
E0
E10
1000
E20
E50
500
0
2nd Gear
30km/h @2070rpm
3rd Gear
4th Gear
50 km/h @2320rpm
90 km/h @3100rpm
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Lambda
LAMBDA vs ETHANOL PERCENTAGE
1.100
1.000
λ
30 km/h
0.900
50 km/h
90 km/h
0.800
0.700
E0
E10
E20
E30
E40
E50
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Lambda influence
LAMBDA INFLUENCE ON HC and NO x EMISSIONS
300
2500
250
2000
1500
150
1000
NOx [ppm]
HC [ppm]
200
HC
NOx
100
500
50
0
0.700
0.750
0.800
0.850
0.900
0.950
1.000
1.050
0
1.100
λ
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Lambda influence
LAMBDA EFFECT ON CO, CO 2 and O2 EMISSIONS
16.0
1.20
14.0
1.00
0.80
10.0
8.0
0.60
6.0
O 2 [%]
CO & CO 2 [%]
12.0
CO2
CO
O2
0.40
4.0
0.20
2.0
0.0
0.700
0.750
0.800
0.850
0.900
0.950
1.000
1.050
0.00
1.100
λ
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Ignition timing effect on torque
LAMBDA & IGNITION TIMING INFLUENCE ON TORQUE
100
0°
4°
80
12°
70
Bosch, 2007
TORQUE Nm
90
60
50
0.700
0.750
0.800
0.850
0.900
0.950
1.000
1.050
1.100
λ
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Ignition timing effect on sfc
LAMBDA & IGNITION TIMING INFLUENCE
ON SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
0.50
kg/kWh
0.48
0.46
0°
0.44
4°
0.42
12°
0.40
0.38
Bosch, 2007
0.36
0.34
0.32
0.30
0.700
0.750
0.800
0.850
0.900
0.950
1.000
1.050
1.100
λ
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Ignition timing effect on CO
LAMBDA & IGNITION TIMING INFLUENCE ON CO EMISSIONS
10
8
0°
7
4°
6
12°
5
Bosch, 2007
CO % vol
9
4
3
2
1
0
0.700
0.750
0.800
0.850
0.900
0.950
1.000
1.050
1.100
λ
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Ignition timing effect on HC
LAMBDA & IGNITION TIMING INFLUENCE ON HC EMISSIONS
350
300
0°
4°
12°
200
150
Bosch, 2007
HC ppm
250
100
50
0
0.700
0.750
0.800
0.850
0.900
0.950
1.000
1.050
1.100
λ
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Ignition timing effect on NOX
LAMBDA & IGNITION TIMING INFLUENCE ON NO x EMISSIONS
4000
3500
0°
NO x ppm
3000
4°
2500
12°
2000
1500
Bosch, 2007
1000
500
0
0.700
0.750
0.800
0.850
0.900
0.950
1.000
1.050
1.100
λ
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Ethanol production facility
Video Tour of an Ethanol Plant
Source: Midwest Grain Producers
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Antwerp, October 2009
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Ethanol in racing
Ethanol becomes fuel of choice for Indy Racing League
Source: www.fueleconomy.gov
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Ethanol in racing
Team Nasamax
Le Mans 2004
Ethanol Hemelgarn Racing Team
2005 Indy Car series
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Biofuels: Panacea or Chimera?
Biofuels represent
simply the first step
on a clean technology
development trajectory
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Thanks for your attention!
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