AP United States
Government and Politics
Exam Review
Focus on Edwards Chapters 8 and 11
(Unit 3 from our course)
This corresponds to Chapter 7 in the
review book
(Political Parties and Interest Groups)
Political Parties
Chapter 8
Political Parties
main vehicles for nominating candidates and
running campaigns
serve as linkage institutions that help
bring the concerns of the electorate to the
political arena through elections
unite groups of politicians and the electorate
by offering an ideological framework with
which people can choose to identify
themselves
Political Parties
United States has for the most part
always had a two-party system
Party competition is the battle
between the Democrats and the
Republicans for the control of public
offices
Party Tasks
Choosing candidates
Originally parties internally nominated their
candidates to run an election
Today, the public can choose candidates in
primary elections
Running campaigns
Parties organize political campaigns and try to
convince voters to elect their candidate
Today, by directly communicating with the
public through television, candidates can
operate more independently from their parties
Party Tasks
Providing a political identity
Each party has an image
This offers the public a familiar ideology or platform
with which they can choose to identify themselves
and identify politicians
rational-choice theory proposed by Anthony
Downs provides a model of the relationship between
parties and voters
assumes that individuals weigh the costs and
benefits of their choices and choose the party
closest to them
Party Tasks
Endorsing specific policies
Politicians of a party often support each other,
because typically they agree on a general party
platform
Coordinating policymaking
Through party identification, politicians in
different branches of government are able o
work together or support each other
Parties, Voters, and Policy:
The Downs Model
Rational choice theory explains the actions
of voters and politicians
assumes that individuals act in their best interest
and weigh the costs and benefits of possible
alternatives
in order to win office, candidates select policies
that are widely favored
majority of voters are in the middle ideologically,
so centrist parties win elections
has led to criticism of the two major parties for being too
similar
The Party in the
Electorate
Many voters cast ballots on the basis of party
identification
Example: people who consider themselves
Democrats usually vote for Democratic candidates
Most voters have a party image or perception of what
the policies are that the party stands for
Party identification is declining
As of 2000, the plurality of voters considered
themselves Independent rather than Democratic
or Republican
Ticket splitting, or voting for members of different
parties for different offices in an election (on the rise)
This practice leads to a divided party government – the
president may be of a different party from the majority
party in Congress, for example
The Party Organizations:
From the Grass Roots to
Washington
Unlike more formal parties of other countries,
American political parties are fairly decentralized,
with city, state, and national administrative bodies
Until the 1930s
local parties had tremendous influence over city
governments
often-corrupt party machines maintained their
power by using the patronage system to reward
local members with important positions in the
government
Today local parties have declined, while county-level
organizations have increased their election activities
The Party Organizations:
From the Grass Roots to
Washington
Holding elections is one important task performed by the
states, each of which has its own unique party organization
 Each state’s parties go about the election process
differently, such as by choosing which type of primary to
hold
Closed primary
only people who have already registered with the party are
allowed to vote in the primary
Open primary
Voters can choose on Election Day which party’s primary
they would like to participate in.
Blanket primary
Candidates from both parties are listed on the primary
ballot, so voters can choose different parties’ candidates for
different offices
The Party Organizations:
From the Grass Roots to
Washington
State parties are becoming more formally
organized, but most presidential campaigning is
still conducted through the candidate’s personal
campaign organization
National party organization, or national
committee writes the official party platform and
holds the national convention through which a
presidential and vice presidential candidate are
nominated
national committee maintains the party organization
during non election years
The Party in Government:
Promises and Policy
Parties help members of Congress form
coalitions that support a particular
policy objective
(However)
presidents do not need to rely on party
support as much as they used to because
they can gain the favor of the public
directly through television/internet
Party Eras in American
History
Most democratic nations have multiparty
systems that allow many interests to be
represented
United States has always had a two-party
system
Political scientists divide American history into
party eras in which one party dominated
politics for a significant period of time
Party eras change when a critical election
reveals new issues and a failure of the
traditional coalitions
usually causes party realignment, when the party
redefines itself and attracts a new coalition of voters
Party Eras in American
History
First Party System: 1796-1824
Alexander Hamilton’s short-lived
Federalist Party was the first political
party
Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans
maintained control of the White House
Party Eras in American
History
Democrats and the Whigs: 1828-1856
Andrew Jackson appealed to the
masses rather than to the elite, and he
formed a new coalition, and ultimately,
the Democratic Party
opposition party was the Whig Party,
though it had little political success
Party Eras in American
History
Two Republican Eras: 1860-1928
Republican Party formed out of a
coalition of antislavery groups and
nominated Lincoln as its first presidential
candidate
Election of 1896 began another strongly
Republican era during which
industrialization and capitalism were
advanced
Party Eras in American
History
New Deal Coalition: 1932-1964
Franklin Roosevelt brought the Democratic Party
back into favor by starting scores of federal
programs to combat the Great Depression
New Democratic coalition brought together the
poor, southerners, African Americans, city
dwellers, Catholics, and persons of Jewish faith
Kennedy’s New Frontier and Johnson’s
Great Society and War on Poverty continued
the Democratic New Deal tradition
Party Eras in American
History
1968-Present: Southern Realignment and the Era of
Divided Party Government
states in the South have realigned and are now
strongholds of the Republican party, but this has not
always been true
President Nixon was able to capture the South, which had
previously been solidly Democratic
When Nixon became President, for the first time in the
20th century, there was divided government
frequent election pattern for most presidents that
followed him
trend in divided government has led many political
scientists to believe that the party system has dealigned
rather than realigned
Party dealignment means that people are gradually
moving away from both parties.
Third Parties: Their
Impact in American
Politics
Third parties occasionally arise to challenge
the two major parties, but they rarely gain
enough support to put a candidate in office
Some parties form around a specific cause
Some are splinter parties, formed from smaller
factions of the two major parties
Some form around a specific individual
Third Parties: Their
Impact in American
Politics
Though they rarely win, third-party
candidates do force particular issues onto
the political agenda and allow Americans to
express their discontent with the two major
parties
may also shift the votes of the electorate
many political scientists think George W. Bush
won the 2000 election because Green Party
candidate Ralph Nader took votes away from
Democrat Al Gore
Understanding Political
Parties/Democracy and
Responsible Party
Government
Political parties today are considered to
be essential to a democratic system
and the prevention of totalitarian rule,
although the framers of the
Constitution were wary of political
parties
Understanding Political
Parties/Democracy and
Responsible Party
Government
Critics of the two-party system allege:
little choice for voters because they two parties
keep to the middle of the road
less opportunity for political change
so decentralized that it fails to translate
campaign promises into policy because
politicians do not have to vote with the party
line
responsible party model is proposed by
critics of the two-party system as how parties
should work, including offering choices to voters
and following through with campaign promises
Multiparty systems
Winner take all system is an electoral
system in which legislative seats are
awarded to candidates who come in first
presidential elections, the candidate who comes
in first gets all of the state’s electoral votes
Proportional representation is an
electoral system in which seats in a
legislative branch awarded in proportion to
the percentage of the vote received
Coalition government is when two or
more parties join together to form a majority
in a national legislature
American Political Parties
and the Scope of
Government/Is the Party
Over?
American political parties do not
require party discipline the way many
European party systems do
weak party structure of the United States
makes it harder to pass legislation
political parties have declined in strength
political party is no longer the major
source of information for citizens
Interest Groups
Chapter 11
Interest Groups
One of the most pronounced political trends
in the last few decades is the rise of
interest groups
today there are more than 20,000 of these
private organizations in Washington and in state
capitals
represent bodies of people with shared interests
who lobby legislators on their behalf
natural part of a democracy
Americans tend to view them with skepticism
because, most often, the language of influence
is money
The Role and Reputation
of Interest Groups
Interest groups may pursue any kind of policy, in all
levels and branches of government
differ from political parties in several ways
pursue their agenda through political process,
whereas parties advance their agendas through
elections
Interest groups specialize in one or two policy, areas
whereas parties focus on general policies to win a
majority
Many people criticize interest groups for fostering a
policymaking system heavily influenced by the ability
to raise and donate money to candidates for
legislative and executive office based on money
The Role and Reputation
of Interest Groups
Interest groups donate heavily to campaigns
through political action committees (PACs) to
influence legislators’ voting decisions
more money an interest group has, the more it is
able to influence policy.
proponents of interest groups argue that they are
effective linkage institutions
represent the interests of the public in the policy
arena
Because they are carefully monitored and regulated,
the methods of interest groups are much more
honest than those employed by people and groups
in the past
Theories of Interest
Group Politics
Pluralist theory
Interest groups are important to democracy
because they allow people to organize
themselves to change policies
Because hundreds of interest groups must
compete for influence, no one group will
dominate the others
Groups put up a fair fight; they do not engage
in illegal activities to surpass other groups
Groups are equal in power because they have
different resources at their disposal
Theories of Interest
Group Politics
Elite theory
there may be hundreds of interest groups, but
only a select few have any real power
interests of only a handful of elites, usually
business people, are almost always favored over
other interest
policy battles that smaller interests do win are
usually minor
Power rests mostly with large multinational
corporation
system of elite control is maintained by a wellestablished structure of interlocking policy
players
Theories of Interest
Group Politics
Hyperpluralist theory or interest group
liberalism
Sub governments, or iron triangles, form
around specific policy areas
these are composed of an interest group, a federal
agency, and any legislative committees or
subcommittees that handle the policy area
by avoiding having to choose between policy
initiatives, the government creates conflicting
policies that waste time and money
groups have too much political influence
because they usually get what they want
Competing sub governments only add to the
confusion
What makes an Interest
Group Successful?
Size of the group
important to distinguish between a potential group, which is
all of the people who might be members of the group, and
an actual group, which is all the people who actually join
Interest groups organize and work for the collective good of
the members of the group
Smaller groups are more effective than large groups
Smaller groups can organize more easily
A member of a small group is more likely to experience the
group’s success, and therefore, is more likely to work
harder than a member of a large group
(However)
groups do experience the free rider problem, where
individuals can benefit from the work of the group
without actually joining the group, and according to
Olson’s law of large groups, this problem is greater
with larger groups
What makes an Interest
Group Successful?
intensity of the group (feelings)
Single-issue groups form around a specific
policy and tend to pursue it
uncompromisingly
Single-issue groups often deal with
moral issues that people feel strongly
about
Members of single-issue groups often vote
according to a candidates stand on the
group’s issue
What makes an Interest
Group Successful?
financial resources at the group’s
disposal
Politicians are most likely to serve the
needs of people or groups with money
Money allows groups to mobilize, conduct
research, and maintain an administration
How Groups Try to
Shape Policy
Lobbying
Professional lobbyists attempt to persuade
lawmakers to act on behalf of their group
more helpful a lobbyist is the more power he or
she has with a politician
Lobbyists:
serve as policy experts in their interest area
act as consultants who advise legislators on how to
approach policy issues and debates
mobilize support for politicians during reelection
suggest innovative policy ideas
How Groups Try to
Shape Policy
Electioneering
Interest groups endorse a candidate who
supports their interests and work to get that
candidate elected
The groups:
encourage people to vote for candidates
help finance he candidates campaign through PACs
Congressional candidates have become largely
dependent on PAC money
Most PAC money goes to incumbents rather than
challengers
How Groups Try to
Shape Policy
Litigation
Interest groups use lawsuits to change policies
that have already gone through the legislative
process
even the threat of a lawsuit may be enough to
influence policymaking
groups can file amicus curiae briefs to state
their side in a court case and to assess the
consequences of the decisions the court might
make
groups can also file class action lawsuits
suits on behalf of a larger group in the electorate
How Groups Try to
Shape Policy
Mobilizing public opinion
Interest groups try to influence the public
because the know that politicians careers
depend on public opinion
groups cultivate a positive image of
themselves in the eyes of the public
Groups encourage public participation to
advance interests from the point of view
of the constituency
Types of Interest Groups
Economic interests
business, labor, farmers
against regulations and tax increases
want tax advantages subsidies, and contracts
for work
Organized labor is the second largest group
(e.g., the AFL-CIO, the National Education
Association)
The interest group with the largest membership is the
AARP, which represents the interests of older
Americans
Businesses are the most widely represented
interest in Washington
Types of Interest Groups
Environmental interests
fastest-growing type of interest group
favor wilderness protection, pollution
control, energy alternatives
oppose policies that damage the
environment
Examples include the Sierra Club, the
Nature Conservancy
Types of Interest Groups
Equality interests
civil rights, women, social welfare
concerns center on fair treatment in jobs,
housing, and education
Examples include the American Civil
Liberties Union (ACLU), the Southern
Poverty Law Center
Types of Interest Groups
Consumers’ interests and public
interests
whole public benefits from certain policy actions
product safety, which was introduced by Ralph
Nader
groups that cannot assert their interests
themselves: children, the mentally ill, animals
fair and open government; government reform
Examples include Consumer Alert, the
Children’s Defense Fund