Final Review Unit 3
Linkage Institutions
Linkage Institutions
• Linkage institutions connect citizens to their
government
• In addition to media, other linkage institutions
are political parties and interest groups
Political Parties
• Not mentioned in the Constitution but
developed immediately
• Parties are election-focused and legislationfocused
• US has a two-party (bipartisan) system
(Democrats and Republicans)
• Two-party system is reinforced by our
electoral system—each race is for one seat
– Also hard for third party candidate to make ballot
Political Party Characteristics
• Parties serve as intermediaries between
people and the government
• Parties are made up of grassroots members,
activist members and leadership
• Parties are organized to
– Raise money
– Present positions on policy and
– Get their candidate elected to office (this is most
important party function)
Third / Minor Parties
• Form to represent constituencies that feel
disenfranchised from the major parties
• Splinter parties-have split off from major parties; feel
slighted by their major party
– Ross Perot’s Reform Party is an example
• Ideological parties (doctrinal)- Socialist or Libertarian
Party
• Single-issue parties-focus on one issue (Green party)
• Third parties are NOT the same as independent
candidates who run without party affiliation
Third / Minor Parties
• Why they fail:
– American system is designed to support only two
parties
– Winner take all system discourages votes for a
minor party (throw-away your vote)
• Why they are important:
– Serve as critic and innovator in American system—
can suggest new approaches to problems and can
take a clear stance on issues
Functions of Modern Political Parties
• Parts of the Party
– In Electorate—voters who support their party and candidates
– In government—elected party office holders
– Party organization– political professionals who recruit
candidates and voters, organize campaigns and raise $
• Functions of Party
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Recruit and nominate candidates
Educate and mobilize voters
Provide campaign funds and support
Organize government activity
Provide checks and balance through opposition of two parties
Reduce conflict and tension in society by promoting
compromise
Are Parties in Decline?
• Some cite the following as proof that they are
– Since 1968, we have had divided governmentexecutive branch is held by one party and
legislative branch by the other; previously, one
party dominated
– Americans are voting split ticket more frequently
– A rise in the number of voters registering as
“independent” rather than Democrat or
Republican
Party Coalitions
• Republican Coalition
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Religious conservatives
Cuban Americans
Pro-lifers, opponents of gay rights and affirmative action
Veterans’ groups / strong military types
• Democratic coalition
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Pro choice, environmentalists
African Americans, Jewish people
Intellectuals, urban dwellers
Lower incomes
Labor unions
Ideological Differences Between
Parties
• Republicans
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Spend more on defense
Government aid to private or religious schools
Tax relief to everyone, including wealthy and corporations
Do NOT support spending on healthcare and social welfare
Do NOT favor gun control
• Democrats
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Spend less on defense
Spend more on social welfare, education, government-run health care
Tax relief to low income and middle class
Favor some gun control
Party Realignment
• Realignment occurs when the coalitions within the two
parties fall apart—such as when a group within a party
moves to the other party
• Examples include Black Southern voters moving from
Republican to Democrat during the Civil Rights
Movement
• Realignment is signaled by a critical election—when a
new party comes to dominate politics
• Since 1960s we have been in era of divided gov’t
• Dealignment - # of Democrats has decreased, # of
Republicans has stayed stable, # of Independents has
increased
Interest Groups and Lobbyists
• Interest Groups are organizations dedicated to
a particular political goal or to a set of unified
goals.
• Examples: Christian Coalition, NAACP, NRA
• Similar to political parties in that they try to
influence politics but different in that they’re
ideologically focused rather than election
focused
• Lobbying- influencing legislators on a bill
How Interest Groups Influence
Government
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Direct lobbying- meet with elected officials
Testifying before Congress
Socializing- to meet and forge relationships
Endorsements
Court actions
Rallying their members
Propaganda
Limits on Lobbying
• Several laws limit the scope of lobbying efforts
but are largely ineffective
• Stronger efforts to limit lobbying can violate
the 1st Amendment right to free speech
• Buckley v. Valeo, 1976- Federal limits on
campaign donations upheld but also equated
donations with free speech; Court says they
shouldn’t be too limited
Political Action Committees (PACs)
• Were created by the 1974 Federal Elections
Campaign Act as a means of raising campaign
funds that could be tracked.
– May not donate more than $5000 per year to any
single candidate
– Must donate to at least 5 different candidates
– Corporations, unions, trade associations make up
PACs
– May not exceed $108,200 to national parties
527 Groups
• Is a tax-exempt organization that promotes a
political agenda but who can NOT advocate for a
specific candidate
• These political organizations are NOT regulated
by the FEC or subject to PAC limits
• Examples are Swift Boat veterans, College
Republican National Committee
• Mc-Cain-Feingold/Bipartisan Campaign Reform
Act of 2002 made 527s a more attractive option
to get around hard money limits of the Act.
Campaign Finance Today
• Citizens United v. Federal Elections Commission (2010)
– Landmark Supreme Court case
– Court rules that the 1st A prohibits gov’t from restricting
independent political expenditures by corporations and unions.
– Super PACs are now created to fund campaigns
• Super PACs
– Super PACs may not make contributions to candidate campaigns
or parties
– Must do any political spending independently of the campaigns.
– Can raise funds from corporations, unions and other groups, and
from individuals, without legal limits.