Social Research Methods:
Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches, 5e
Chapter 10: Survey Research
Introduction
Logic of Survey Research.
Constructing the Questionnaire.
Types of Surveys: Advantages and
Disadvantages.
Interviewing.
Ethical Survey
Conclusion
Introduction
What is a survey?

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A form of quantitative research in which the
researcher:
Develops a questionnaire
A set of questions designed to measure one or
more variables

Administers the questionnaire to a sample
Unit of analysis – most often individual, but can be
family, organization, etc

Records and analyzes the responses
Surveys are
The most widely used data gathering
technique in sociology
Used in many fields
Research Questions Appropriate
for a Survey
Behavior
How frequently do you or someone else do
something?
When is the last time you or someone else
did something?
Attitudes and opinions
What kind of job is someone doing?
What is the biggest problem in this
community?
Characteristics
Are you married?
What is your age?
Questions continued…
Expectations
Do you plan to do something within the next
year?
What will change?
Self-classifications
Do you consider yourself liberal?
Are you more rural or urban?
Knowledge
What is the population of this community?
History of Survey Research
Based on ancient census, e.g. Domesday Book
in England 1085-6

For taxation, political representation
United States: research on urban poverty mid19th century, no scientific sampling or statistics
Social surveys: 1890s to 1930s – qualitative and
quantitative survey research on communities –
now would be called ‘action-oriented community
survey’ oriented toward social reform
By mid-1940s, eclipsed by modern quantitative
survey
The modern quantitative survey –
factors in its rise to dominance:
Addition of scientific sampling and precise
measurement techniques, after Literary Digest
case
Researchers developed scales and indexes
Increasing use of surveys in other fields –
market research, journalism, government,
private non-profits
‘Professionalization’ of social science – shift
from non-academics seeking to solve social
problems – often at local level – to positivist
model, based on natural sciences
Factors leading to professionalization of social
sciences and rise of survey research
Competition among researchers and
universities for funding and prestige
Researchers turned away from reform ideals
after the end of the Progressive Era (1895-1915)
Major foundations – Carnegie, Rockefeller,
Sage – poured money into quantitative positivist
research
History, continued
WWII – great government use of surveys
Post-war: shift to universities and other
settings. Major growth due to:
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Computers
New survey research centers
Creation of data archives
Funding – especially by federal government
Improved methodology
Survey Research Today
Survey research ‘industry’ employs more
than 60,000 people in U.S. alone,
including 6,000 full-time professionals
Surveys are used in


Basic research
Applied research
Chapter 10: Survey Research
Introduction
Logic of Survey Research.
Constructing the Questionnaire.
Types of Surveys: Advantages and
Disadvantages.
Interviewing.
Ethical Survey
Conclusion
Steps in Conducting a Survey
Surveys follow a deductive process
Begin with theoretical or applied research
problem(s) or question(s)
See specific steps in figure 10.1, page 268
Chapter 10: Survey Research
Introduction
Logic of Survey Research.
Constructing the Questionnaire.
Types of Surveys: Advantages and
Disadvantages.
Interviewing.
Ethical Survey
Conclusion
Principles of Good Question Writing
A good questionnaire forms an integrated whole



Introductory remarks and instructions
Measure each variable with one or more questions
Questions flow smoothly
Dilemma:



Each respondent should hear the same question, but
Respondents have different backgrounds and frames
of reference, so the same wording may not have the
same meaning to different people
So, question writing is as much an art as a science
Writing Questions
Avoid using jargon, slang, or
abbreviations.
Avoid ambiguity, confusion, and
vagueness.
Avoid emotional language and prestige
bias.
Avoid double-barreled questions.
Writing questions continued…
Avoid leading questions.
Avoid asking difficult questions.
Avoid false premises.
Avoid asking about future intentions.
Avoid double negatives.
Avoid overlapping or unbalanced response
categories.
Aiding Respondent Recall
Memory is less trustworthy than social
scientists once assumed
Need to customize questions and interpret
results cautiously
Provide respondents with special
instructions and extra thinking time
Types of Questions and Response
Categories
Threatening (to self-image, etc.) questions
can be mitigated by
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‘enhanced’ wording
Gender of researcher
Anonymity
Knowledge questions
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Pilot test questions
Sleeper questions
Types of Questions and Response
Categories, continued
Skip or contingency questions
Open vs. Closed questions

See box 10.2, page 278 – advantages and
disadvantages of each
Agree/Disagree, Rankings or Ratings?
Wording Issues
Questionnaire Design Issues
Instrument length.
The order or sequence of the questions.


Order effects
Context effects
Format and Layout
Non-response, refusals.
Response rate

See box 10.6, page 287
Chapter 10: Survey Research
Introduction
Logic of Survey Research.
Constructing the Questionnaire.
Types of Surveys: Advantages and
Disadvantages.
Interviewing.
Ethical Survey
Conclusion
Types of Surveys: Advantages and
Disadvantages
See Table 10.4, page 290
Chapter 10: Survey Research
Introduction
Logic of Survey Research.
Constructing the Questionnaire.
Types of Surveys: Advantages and
Disadvantages.
Interviewing.
Ethical Survey
Conclusion
Interviewing – the Survey Interview
The survey research interview is:


A special kind of interviewing
A social relationship
Role of the interviewer
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Gain cooperation, build rapport, but
Remain neutral, unbiased, nonjudgmental
“Stages” – see 294-295 for specific techniques
Training Interviewers
Interviewer Bias
Cultural Meanings and Survey Interviews
Feminist Approaches to Interviewing
(Contrast with Positivist)
See box 10.11, p. 299
Computer Assisted Telephone
Interviewing (CATI) and Web-Surveys
CATI
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Interviewers read questions from a computer screen and input
responses
Speeds interviewing and decreases interviewer errors.
Well suited to contingency questions
elemarketers are making this technique problematic as respondents
have become suspicious of survey callers.
Web-Surveys
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Promising in terms of cost
Can have high rates of coverage error in terms of who really completes
the instrument
Many people still lack access to the internet.
The Ethical Survey
Key issues
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Privacy
Voluntary participation
Pseudosurveys
“suppression polls”
“push polls”
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Misuse of surveys
Uncritical reporting of bad surveys