U.S. HISTORY & GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 12
FDR expanded army to 227k after Hitler invaded
Poland
SEE CHART PG. 287
After Pearl Harbor, 60k men enlisted
Department of Agriculture provided 350k acres
of land to War Department for new bases (i.e.
Naval Air Station in Jacksonville, FL)
Recruits lived in tents, given physical exams,
injections, & trained together as a team.
Basic training promoted unity but segregation still
existed
Pushing for “Double V”: African Americans
supported the war & win against Hitler’s racism
abroad & racism at home
FDR was pressured to put African Americans into
combat. Benjamin O. Davis Sr. was promoted to the
rank of Brigadier General. Tuskegee Airmen (99th
Pursuit Squadron) helped win the Battle of Anzio in
Italy. They protected American bombers. The 761st
African American Tank Battalion assisted in Battle
of Bulge
Hispanics – 500k; 17 received Congressional Medal
of Honor
Japanese – 33k; 100th Infantry Battalion & 442nd
Regimental Combat Team. Most decorated in
history of U.S. military
Native Americans – 25k. More than 400 Navajo
Indians will survive as Marines & provided
assistance as “code talkers” using their language
that the Japanese could not crack (Windtalkers)
Jewish Americans – 500k. 52k decorated for
bravery
President Truman desegregates the military in 1948
Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) 1942:
allowed for women to be a part of the armed
services – a non-combative role. Oveta Culp Hobby
was WAAC’s first director in the War Department.
Women received official status, a salary, but few
benefits given to men.
Named changed to Women’s Army’s Corps (WAC)
in July 1943 & women were given full army benefits
Jobs: nurses, ambulance drivers, radio operators,
electricians, & pilots – Women Air Force Service
Pilots (WASPs)
Awarding of
Congressional Gold
Medal
FDR establishes the National Defense Advisory
Committee. Goal: to establish incentives to help
produce goods quickly & mobilizing the war
effort
Cost-plus contracts were offered to companies
who wanted to produce war materials.
Government paid costs plus a percentage above
that for their profit
Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) was
authorized to provide loans to companies who
converted to making war materials
Production: Factories converted from producing
consumer goods to war materials
Cars to tank/planes/command cars
Mechanical pencils to bomb parts
Bedspread to mosquito netting
Soft drinks to filling shells with explosives/gun
powder
Ship building will increase with the use of prefabricated parts (i.e Liberty Ships)
SEE CHART PG. 288
FDR sets up War Production Board to assist in
settling controversies & to decide which
companies began producing war materials
instead of consumer goods. They would allocate
raw materials, set production goals, & organize
nationwide drives to collect raw materials
Office of War Mobilization settled controversies
between different agencies involved in war
effort
Mobilizing of the economy officially brings an end
to the Great Depression
The cost to the improvement of the economy was
to families who moved to where the work was:
living in horrible housing conditions, experiencing
race riots, rising juvenile delinquency, high taxes, &
rationed goods
Unemployment down to 1.2%. Men were finding
jobs. Price & wage controls were in place but still
saved $. Farmers’ crop production rose 50%,
income tripled, & many paid off mortgages before
the end of the war
Women: More than 4 million will prove to
company owners that they could do the job of a
man – Rosie the Riveter. Women made up 35%
of workforce. Over 10% were in defense plants.
Many lost jobs at end of war but proved they
could do it
Bracero Program: employed Mexican farm
workers in Southwest. 200k Mexicans will work
in agriculture & railroad industries. Program
continued until 1964
African Americans received only 15% of jobs
offered.
A. Philip Randolph, head of Brotherhood of
Sleeping Car Porters Union organized a march
on Washington D.C. to voice disapproval. FDR
talked him out of it by issuing Executive Order
8802: every defense industry or government
agency had to be equitable in their hiring
practices.
Fair Employment Practices Commission was
assigned to enforce the order
Sunbelt is formed (Southern CA & Deep South)
as Americans migrated to where jobs were
National Housing Agency 1942 created to deal
with housing issues by providing government
housing
Civil Rights made little gains during the war
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), founded by
James Farmer, confronts urban segregation in
the north. First sit-in was in a restaurant in
Chicago in 1942
Detroit 1943: Tensions between black & white
teenagers on a beach escalated. White sailors
joined in. Fighting went on for 3 days & FDR
sent in troops
Mexican Americans
experienced prejudice in
Lost Angeles.
Summer 1943: Sailors
said that they were
attacked by Mexican
Americans wearing the
“zoot-suits”. Thousands of
servicemen & civilians
went into Mexican
neighborhoods attacking
any youths wearing the
“zoot-suit”
Thousands of German & Italian descent would
be deemed as enemy aliens & were given travel
restrictions or had their personal property
seized. Some were sent to live in military
internment camps
After attack on Pearl Harbor many believed that
Japanese Americans were planning to attack,
bomb, or sabotage U.S. FDR issued an executive
order for all Japanese Americans (Nisei) to be
placed in relocation centers (internment camps)
Shortly after this a Japanese sub surfaced in
Santa Barbara, CA & shelled an oil refinery.
In Canada
Korematsu v. United
States 1944: U.S.
Supreme Court decided
that the action of
internment was justified
on the basis of military
necessity – SEE
ANALYZING SUPREME
COURT CASES PG. 291
Japanese American Citizens League (JACL)
pushed for the government to compensate
those sent to camps for lost property.
In 1965 Congress spent only $38 million
In 1978, JACL pushed for reparations towards
each individual who was in an internment
camp. President Reagan signed a bill in 1988 to
pay $20k to each person. Payments were made
in 1990
FDR puts the following economic controls in
place to avoid inflation: Office of Price
Administration & Civilian Supply (OPACS) &
Office of Economic Stabilization (OES). They
controlled inflation by freezing prices on most
goods & rationing goods/resource materials
Americans will contributed by rationing
everything, planting Victory Gardens,
purchasing war bonds
Office of Scientific Research and Development:
Created to bring scientists together
Improved radar, sonar, drugs (penicillin)
Created new weapons. Biggest one: the atomic
bomb (Manhattan Project)
Office of War Information (OWI) improved the
public’s understanding of the war & served as a
liaison to various media outlets
Filmmakers had guidelines that had to be
answered prior to making & releasing a film
News reports about the war would air prior to a
film being shown
Admiral Chester Nimitz leads the U.S. Navy in
the Pacific against Japan using aircraft carriers
that were out to sea at the time Japan bombed
Pearl Harbor
Japan attacks Philippines bombing their airfields
& landing troops. General Douglas MacArthur
would be forced to retreat to Bataan Peninsula.
FDR orders MacArthur to evacuate to Australia.
MacArthur vowed to return.
Philippines surrenders to Japan May 1942
Lt. Colonel James Doolittle will lead 16 B-25
bombers in the bombing of Tokyo on April 18,
1942. These raids will become known as the
“Doolittle Raids” (featured in film Pearl Harbor)
The successes of the raids encouraged
Americans & hurt the morale of Japan
Japan’s original strategy was to cut U.S.’s supply
lines to Australia by capturing New Guinea.
After Doolittle raids, Admiral Yamamoto
convinced Japanese Leaders to attack Midway
Island & lure the U.S. navy into battle as he
believed he could defeat them.
Japan will attack New Guinea with only 3
aircraft carriers but sent the rest with
Yamamoto to attack Midway Island
Battle of the Coral Sea – May 1942:
Americans based in HI were successful in cracking
Japan’s navy code.
Admiral Nimitz would send the Yorktown &
Lexington (aircraft carriers)
5-day battle where Australians & Americans join
forces to stop the advancement of Japanese
towards Australian shores.
Most of fighting was airstrikes launched from
aircraft carriers.
U.S. was able to prevent the Japanese from taking
New Guinea & Australia, keeping supply lines open
Navajo Code Talkers – “Windtalkers”:
Navajo Indians were recruited into the Marines to use
their native language in communication
Their language had no written alphabet & was only
known to them & very few others.
Language proved difficult for the Japanese to “crack”
thus providing the U.S. with an advantage in doing
what needed to be done to defeat the Japanese
Battle of Midway – June 1942:
Led by Admiral Chester Nimitz.
Island is northwest of HI
Allies broke Japan’s code & learned they were going
after the island. Nimitz moved to defend the island.
When Japanese fleet was found, he launched an
attack against them severely damaging their navy
Victory was seen as a turning point & Allies began
taking back territory from Japan, island by island
SEE MAP PG. 297
To defeat Japan two things were done: Nimitz
advanced through Central Pacific by “island
hopping” & MacArthur advanced to take
Solomon Islands, New Guinea, & retake
Philippines
Island-hopping:
Fall 1943: Tarawa Atoll, part of Gilbert Islands is invaded by
5k Marines. Many perished as they waded ashore due to
ships running around on reefs in shallow water. One group
reached shores by using amphtrac, amphibious tractor
Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Islands, was next. Amphtracs were
used in landing troops. They also captured Eniwetok Island.
Success in Marshall Islands allowed for U.S. to set up air
bases
Mariana Islands: Nimitz invaded Saipan, Tinian, & Guam
where Japanese resistance was strongest. Islands fell in
August 1944. Islands served as the new base for the B-29
Super fortress bomber
SEE MAP PG. 298
MacArthur:
Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands – August 1942: first
offensive by MacArthur. Japan’s first defeat on land.
MacArthur then moved troops north to capture the
north coast of New Guinea. Once secured, MacArthur
took the island of Morotai
Battle of Leyte Island, Philippines – October 1942: 3day battle. Japanese used kamikazes to defend the
island. MacArthur led the Allies to victory in retaking
Philippines. Japanese lost 3 battleships, 4 aircraft
carriers, 13 cruisers, & over 500 planes. Japan’s
Imperial Navy is shattered.
MacArthur then captured Manila, Philippines' capital,
March 1945
FDR & Winston Churchill (British PM) meet at
the White House to discuss war plans. They
decide to strike against Germany & Italy first
then go against Japan.
Invasion becomes known as OPERATION TORCH
SEE MAP PG. 304
Battle for North Africa
FDR invades North Africa to give army some
experience in fighting as well as to secure British
supply lines that came through the Suez Canal.
Erwin Rommel (“Desert Fox”), German general in
charge of “Afrika Corps”.
General Dwight D. Eisenhower invades North Africa
through Tunisia. Eisenhower than used General
George Patton, prominent tank commander, to
achieve victory in May 1943
Battle of the Atlantic:
Hitler continues to use U-boats to attack U.S. along
the eastern coast & all ships in Atlantic.
Allies began using the convoy system. Ships that
were equipped with sonar will be used on outside
to help detect the U-boats. Ships with planes
equipped with radar will assist as well to find the Uboats & sink them.
Ship production in U.S. increased dramatically to
out number the sinking caused by U-boats.
Battle of Stalingrad:
1ST turning point of war.
Germans take control of the oil fields in Caucasus
Mountains & Stalingrad, major industrial city of
Soviet Union
Luftwaffe used to assist German ground troops &
by September 1942 most of Stalingrad has been
captured.
Soviets launch an offensive during winter by
surround the city & cutting off supplies.
Germans surrendered January 31, 1943 losing 1.1
million soldiers (more than Americans did the
whole war) during this battle alone
Casablanca Conference – January 1943: FDR &
Churchill meet to discuss next stage of
OPERATION TORCH. Agreed to bombing of
Europe & to invade Sicily
British RAF had dropped 2,300 tons of
explosives every month for 3 years. U.S.
dropped 1,500 tons in 1942. January 1943 to
May 1945 together they dropped over 53k tons
of explosives on Germany every month.
Germany lost access to railroads, ability to
replace airplanes, & an oil shortage
Allies captured Sicily in Summer of 1943. King
Victor Emmanuel III forced Mussolini to resign from
his position.
Hitler continued to fight Allies in Italy.
Battle of Anzio: 40 miles from Rome, raged on for 4
months before Allies gained control. Italy fell in
1945 as Germany was close to collapse
Tuskegee Airmen: 99th Pursuit Squadron wins its
first victory in Sicily against enemy aircraft.
Continued to provide aide throughout Italy,
engaging in strategic strikes against Germans
Tehran Conference, late 1943:
Meeting between FDR, Churchill, & Stalin in Tehran,
Iran.
Finalized plans to attack Germany
Stalin launched a full-scale offensive once Allies
invaded France in 1944.
After war, Germany would be divided up & Stalin
agreed to assist U.S. with Japan
OPERATION OVERLORD:
Hitler fortifies French Coast along the English
Channel, preparing for the Allied invasion. Hitler
believed they would land in Calais, closest to
Britain. Allies assisted the belief by faking the build
up of equipment in the region
Allies will plan on landing at 5 beach heads, south
of Calais in Normandy. Massive build up of soldiers
& equipment.
Spring of 1944: 1.5 million U.S. soldiers, 12k
airplanes, 5 million tons of equipment were ready
to begin invasion
OPERATION OVERLORD:
D-DAY – JUNE 6, 1944:
Thousands of soldiers land on the shores of Normandy
beaches.
Code names for beaches: “Utah”, “Omaha”, “Gold”,
“Sword”, “Juno”.
Heaviest casualties were on “Omaha” beach. (featured in
Saving Private Ryan)
Allies will hold the beach heads & in time an 80-mmile
stretch of France
July 1944: massive air & land bombardment
opens a gap in German line allowing for General
George Patton to advance. Reaches the Seine
River (south of Paris) leading to the liberation of
Paris
September 1944: France, Belgium, Luxembourg
will be free of German control
Battle of the Bulge – October 1944:
Last-ditch effort of Hitler to disrupt British &
American lines to keep them out of Germany
Eisenhower sends General George Patton with his
tanks & troops into Antwerp, Belgium to attack the
Germans
Battle raged on for a month costing Germans 120k
troops, 600 tanks & assault guns, & 1600 planes.
Nazis began retreating
Russians push German troops out of Russia &
begin pushing through Poland.
Soviet troops discover concentration camps &
begin liberation in June 1944. Majdanek was 1st
camp. Americans did likewise
February 1945: Russian troops are 35 miles east
of Berlin
March 1945: American forces cross Rhine River
& are 70 miles west of Berlin
April 1945: Soviets smash through German’s last
defense & American troops are not far behind
V-E DAY – MAY 8, 1945:
Soviets storm into Berlin on April 12, 1945.
Hitler kills himself on April 30, 1945 before being
captured
May 7, 1945: Eisenhower accepts unconditional
surrender from the Germans
May 8 is proclaimed Victory in Europe day
FDR did not live to see V-E day. Passes away on
April 12, 1945 from a stroke. Harry S. Truman
becomes our 33rd president
Battle of Iwo Jima:
Sulfur Island
Taking of island is critical as U.S. wanted a base &
refueling station for the B-29 bombers.
21k Japanese defended the island (200 survived)
6k Marines died taking the island.
February 19, 1945 was the raising of the American
flag on the island by six marines (represents the
U.S. Marine Memorial in Washington D.C. today)
General Curtis LeMay orders the B-29 to drop
bombs filled with napalm (firebombs). This
would start fires to assist in destroying main
targets. Controversial tactic as many civilians
were killed (over 80k)
Battle of Okinawa – April to June 1945:
island provided an area closer to Japan to prepare
for an invasion of the mainland.
Much fiercer opposition from Japanese who were
in the rugged mountains.
1900 kamikaze attacks by Japanese on U.S. ships.
Japanese lost 110k lives, Americans lost 12k
Terms of surrender from U.S. called for
unconditional surrender. Japanese were willing
to surrender but wanted Emperor Hirohito to
remain in power
Leo Szilard, Jewish
physicist, learned that
Germans were able to
split the uranium atom.
Convinced Albert Einstein
to send letter to FDR
warning him of this &
how the power could be
used as a weapon.
J. Robert Oppenheimer
was the lead research
scientist for development
of atomic bomb
Alamogordo, NM July 16,
1945 was the first
successful test of the
atomic bomb
Truman learned of the existence of this after
FDR’s death. July 25, 1945 Truman orders
military to make final plans to drop the bomb
even though his staff & members of the cabinet
debated the actual usage of the atomic bomb
SEE ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES PG. 312
August 6, 1945: “Little Boy” dropped by the Enola
Gay on Hiroshima
August 9, 1945: “Fat Man” is dropped on
Nagasaki
An estimated 200k people died. Accurate
number cannot be given as many were
disintegrated
V-J DAY AUGUST 15, 1945: Emperor Hirohito
has formal papers drawn up to officially end the
war.
Formal ceremonies were held on the U.S.
Missouri in Tokyo Bay on September 2, 1945
International Military Tribunal (IMT): court set
up by U.S. Britain, France, & Soviet Union to
punish German & Japanese leaders accused of
war crimes
24 Nazi leaders & soldiers are tried for crimes
against humanity, against the peace, & war
crimes
12 of the 24 sentenced to death, rest sent to
prison.
Established the principle that individuals are
responsible for their own actions even in times
of war & the use of “I was following orders” is
NOT an excuse
Hermann Goering
25 Japanese leaders were charged with war
crimes
18 sentenced to prison, 7 were sentenced to
death
Emperor Hirohito was NOT indicted as they
wanted to avoid an uprising by the people &
there was NO evidence supporting his
involvement in the war
Hideki Tojo
92nd Infantry Division (Buffalos) African
American infantry unit: 7 Legion of Merit
Awards, 65 Silver Stars, & 162 Bronze stars for
courage under fire
Mexican Americans: 17 awarded Congressional
Medal of Honor. Unit E of the 141st Regiment,
36th Division was the most decorated of the war
100th Battalion consisting of 1300 Hawaiian
Nisei (citizens who emigrated from Japan) was
known as the Purple Heart Battalion. Most
decorated unit in American history
Social adjustments had to be made as women
were rearing children alone, children were left
alone with neighbors or relatives while mom
went to work, & the adjustment with the father
finally coming home from the war
Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill): assisted
veterans by providing them with education &
training from colleges & technical schools &
loans to buy homes, a farm, or to start a
business