Social Structure and
Anomie
Merton, R.K. (1938)
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Modes of adaptation to anomie
Cultural goals
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Conformity
Innovation
Ritualism
Retreatism
Rebellion
+
+
x
Institutional means
+
+
x
[+] = "acceptance" / [-] = "elimination" / [x] = "rejection and substitution of
new goals and standards“
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self-fulfilling prophecy
“The self-fulfilling prophecy is, in the beginning,
a false definition of the situation evoking a new
behavior which makes the original false
conception come 'true.' This specious validity of
the self-fulfilling prophecy perpetuates a reign of
error. For the prophet will cite the actual course
of events as proof that he was right from the
very beginning.”
[Merton, R.K. (1968). Social Theory and Social Structure. New York: Free Press. pp. 477]
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Key assumptions
1. Culture not biology accounts for crime
2. Structural strain breeds antisocial
behavior
3. Lack of opportunity + stress on financial
success + egalitarian ideology  anomie
4. Poverty per se does not lead to crime
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Ch. 17: Career Deviance
Howard Becker, excerpted from
Outsiders (1963)
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Symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level
theory based on the idea that people act in
accordance with shared meanings,
orientations, and assumptions
Focus is on etiology (vs epidemiology), and
the process by which a person becomes
deviant

e.g., labeling theory
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Labeling theory
Labeling theory assumes that public
labeling, or branding, as deviant, has
adverse consequences for further social
participation and self-image

the most important drastic change is in public
identity, which is a crucial step towards
building a long-term deviant career
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Master status
master status is a status that assumes priority,
overrides other status considerations
“…possession of one deviant trait may have a
generalized symbolic value, so that people
automatically assume that its bearer possesses
other undesirable traits allegedly associated with
it” (199) – i.e., auxiliary traits

Becker gives example of race – Still the case? Or are
we in a “post-racial” society?
Or do we need to look at the intersection of race and
socioeconomic status?
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…deviance a self-fulfilling prophecy
If the master status is deviant, deviant
identification becomes the controlling one

 self-fulfilling prophecy
due to being excluded from participation in most
other conventional groups
due to the “treatment,” which may itself produce
increasing deviance
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Ch.21: Information Control
and Personal Identity
Erving Goffman, excerpted from
Stigma: Management of a Spoiled
Identity (1963)
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Society has a way grouping people into
social categories, each with a set of
typical attributes
Whenever we meet someone new, we use our
experience to anticipate his/her category &
attributes, his/her social identity
 a person’s virtual social identity refers to the
anticipated category and attributes
 a person's actual social identity is their actual
category and attributes
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Stigma
Stigma is a discrepancy between actual and virtual social identity
that causes us to alter our estimation of them downward
Stigma is an attribute that is deeply discrediting – but it depends on
circumstances

an attribute that stigmatizes one person may be typical for another
person and is therefore neither creditable nor discreditable in itself
e.g., some jobs cause employees w/o the expected college education to
hide this fact; other jobs, however, can lead employees with a degree to
keep it a secret, so that they aren't seen as outsiders
e.g., a middle class boy may have no problem being seen going to the
library, whereas a gang member may worry about being seen by his
associates
 Stigma then is really a special kind of relationship between
attribute and stereotype
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Stigmas vary in how obtrusive they are
When one possesses a stigma that is
known about, s/he is discredited

focus turns to managing tension in
interactions with “Normals”
If the stigma is not known about, s/he is
discreditable

focus turns to managing undisclosed
information about a supposed failing - passing
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Symbols – of prestige & stigma
symbols are signs that convey social
information
prestige symbol (aka, status symbol)
coveys social information about an
individual indicating prestige, honor, or
desirable class position
stigma symbol are signs drawing
attention to a debasing identity
discrepancy, which reduce society’s
valuation of the individual
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disidentifier
In addition to prestige and stigma, there’s a 3rd type of
sign – a disidentifier
disidentifiers are signs intended to break up an
otherwise coherent picture, but in a positive direction
desired by the actor





the actor attempts to undermine social stereotypes about him/her
by displaying some symbol (a disidentifier) that doesn’t fit with
the stereotype, e.g.,
a homeless person reads a newspaper or book in an attempt to
stay the night in some public space
putting on glasses in an attempt to look more “intellectual”
putting on “religious” attire in an attempt to feign belief
taking off “religious” attire in an attempt to disguise belief
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