The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence
by Kathleen Stassen Berger
Seventh Edition
Chapter 10
The Play Years:
Psychosocial
Development
Slides prepared by Kate Byerwalter, Ph.D.,
Grand Rapids Community College
Emotional Development

“Overall, emotional development is the
foundation that enables all the other
forms of development.…”
(Campos et al, 2004, cited on p. 285 in textbook)
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Initiative Versus Guilt

Erik Erikson’s third stage (3-6 yrs)
 A child
wants to complete things
successfully, and feels guilt at failure.
 Example: A child
tries to pour juice into a
cup and spills.

Some guilt is desirable.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Pride

Young children generally have a very
positive self-concept and self-esteem.

They overestimate their abilities.
 Example:
Every preschooler believes he/she
is the brightest, smartest, fastest, most liked,
best at games, etc.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
So proud!
JULIA SMITH / GETTY IMAGES
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation comes from within
the individual; it is the joy of personal
accomplishment.

Adults can encourage this by not
promising rewards for a task that is
already enjoyable; instead, praise a job
well done.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Emotional Regulation

Emotional
regulation is
learning to cope
with and direct
one’s emotions.

It develops as a
result of brain
maturation and
experiences.
PHOTODISC
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Emotional Regulation

The development of emotional regulation
is influenced by:
 Genes
 Early
experiences (especially stressors)
 Culture
 Ongoing care
 Brain maturation
 Gender
 Attachment
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Externalizing and Internalizing
Problems

Externalizing problems occur when a
child turns emotional distress outward
(e.g., attacking others in anger).

Internalizing problems occur when a
child turns emotional distress inward (e.g.,
becoming anxious or withdrawn).
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence involves learning
how to interpret and express emotions.

As the prefrontal cortex develops,
children’s ability to regulate emotions
improves.

Caregivers also play a role in teaching
emotional intelligence.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Empathy and Antipathy

Empathy: a true understanding of the
feelings and concerns of another
 This
results in prosocial behavior (e.g.,
helpful, kind) and is helped by theory of
mind.

Antipathy: a dislike or hatred of people
 Results
in antisocial behavior (e.g.,
aggressive).
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Brotherly
Love
JEFF GREENBERG / THE IMAGE WORKS
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Make it Real: Empathy

In what ways can caregivers help children
learn empathy? Think of specific ideas.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Preference and Prejudice

Young children are
able to show pride
in their own “group”
while avoiding
prejudice of others.
KATE BYERWALTER
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
The Importance of Play

It is natural and beneficial for young
children to PLAY!

Jean Piaget said “Play is the work of the
child.”

Children LEARN through play (and also
relieve stress).
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Types of Play

Solitary = play alone

Onlooker = watch others

Parallel = play with similar toys in
similar ways, but don’t interact

Associative = interact and share
emotions, but not in same game (e.g.,
outdoor play)
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Types of Play (cont.)

Cooperative = play together, with
common goal, taking turns (e.g.,
Checkers)

Rough and tumble = mimics aggression,
but is in fun (“play face”)
 It
usually requires social experience among
participants, and enough physical space to
play.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Quiz: How do you know this
isn’t an aggressive encounter?
LAURA DWIGHT
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Importance of Play: Part II

It is imperative that society continues to
value the importance of all types of play
among young children.

Intellectual development is certainly
important in early childhood, but so is
ample time for free, unstructured play!
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Types of Play (cont.)

Sociodramatic Play = Pretend play in
which children act out self-created roles
and themes

Examples: Playing house, doctor,
superheroes, or school

Think: why might children enjoy this type
of play? What benefits might there be?
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Types of Play (cont.)

Sociodramatic play helps children:
 Explore
and rehearse social roles they
have observed (e.g., playing the “Dad”)
 Regulate
emotions through imagination
(e.g., the powerful feeling of being a
superhero)
 Learn
to negotiate and cooperate with others
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Quiz: What type of play is this?
FELICIA MARTINEZ / PHOTOEDIT, INC.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Make it Real: Coping with Anger

What can
caregivers do to
help children cope
with anger, and
lessen the amount
of aggression
children display?
LAURA DWIGHT
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Aggression

All children experience the emotion of
anger, but aggression involves hostile
attitudes and hurtful, destructive behavior
towards others.

Some types of aggression are more
troublesome and long-lasting than others
(see next slide).
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Types of Aggression

Instrumental: Used to obtain an object
such as a toy
 This
is common among young children, and
becomes less prevalent with age.

Reactive: Retaliation for an act, whether
or not it was intentional
 This
indicates a lack of emotional regulation.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Types of Aggression (cont.)

Relational: Insults or social rejection
intended to hurt another
 Example:

“You can’t come to my party.”
Bullying: Unprovoked, repeated attack to
inflict physical or mental harm
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Make it Real: Parenting

In your opinion,
how influential is a
parent to a child’s
development?
PHOTODISC
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Parenting Styles

Diana Baumrind found that parents differ
on four dimensions of parenting:
 Expressions
 Strategies
 Quality
of warmth
for discipline
of communication
 Expectations
for maturity
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Authoritative Style

High Warmth

High level of communication

Moderate expectations for maturity

Discipline strategies involve much
discussion, firm but fair limits
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Authoritarian Style

Little Warmth

Communication is one way (commands of
parent)

Very high expectations for maturity

Strict, often physical discipline strategies
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Permissive Style

High warmth

High amount of communication

Few to no expectations

Little to no discipline
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Parenting Styles: Quick Review
Suppose a teenager came in late for curfew…

How would each of Baumrind’s 3 main
parenting styles handle the situation?
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Outcomes of Parenting Styles

Which parenting style would you guess is
associated with the following outcomes?
 Children
are obedient, not happy
 Children lack self-control, are not happy
 Children are successful, articulate, intelligent,
and happy
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Outcomes of Parenting Styles

Authoritarian: Children are obedient, not
especially happy

Permissive: Children lack self-control, are
the least happy

Authoritative: Children are successful,
articulate, intelligent, and happy
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Make it Real: Discipline

Anyone working with
young children needs
to have a set of tools
in mind for discipline.

What discipline
strategies have you
heard about or used?
LAURA DWIGHT
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Discipline Strategies

No one strategy is a “cure-all.”

Techniques are often rooted in culture
(e.g., time-out is popular in the U.S.).

All strategies should consider a child’s
emerging self-concept and level of
cognitive development.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
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The Challenge of Media
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Question: The Challenge of Media
Take a guess:
 How much time a day do you think the
average child under 8 years old spends
watching TV or playing video games or
computer?
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
The Challenge of Media (cont.)

Most U.S. children spend over 3 hours a
day using media.

By age 3, over 25% of children have a TV
in their bedroom.

75% of low-income and 83% of higherincome children have cable TV.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Techno Homes–The Typical
Child’s Home Contains:
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
The Challenge of Media (cont.)

Several U.S. organizations have issued
statements imploring parents to reduce
children’s exposure to violent media.

Longitudinal studies have established a
link between TV violence in childhood and
grades in high school.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
The Challenge of Media (cont.)

Overuse of the
media takes away
time for imaginative
and social play, and
reduces time for
parent-child
interaction.
PHOTODISC
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Question: Boy or Girl─So What?

Are males really from Mars, and females
from Venus?

If yes, what makes males and females
think, act, and feel differently?

If no, are gender differences simply
exaggerated?
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Boy or Girl: So What?

Sex differences = biological differences
between males and females

Gender differences = culturally imposed
differences in the roles and behaviors of
males and females
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Developmental Progression of
Gender Awareness

By age 2 cognitive awareness of gender;
gender-related preferences and play patterns
are apparent

By age 3 rudimentary awareness that gender
distinctions are lifelong

By age 4 awareness of “gender-appropriate”
toys and roles

By age 6 well-formed ideas and prejudices
about own and other sex
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Theories of Gender Differences

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)
 Phallic
stage = third stage of psychosexual
development
 Identification
= defense mechanism that lets a
person symbolically take on behaviors and
attitudes of someone more powerful than
himself or herself
 Superego
= personality part that is self-critical
and judgmental
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Theories of Gender Differences (cont.)

Oedipus (boys), Electra (girls) complexes
of phallic stage
 Child
develops sexual feelings toward oppositesex parent, wants to replace same-sex parent
 Child
cannot replace same-sex parent, so wants
to be like that parent
 Guilt
and fear are resolved by genderappropriate behavior
 No
longer a popular theory–often same-sex
parent not present
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Behaviorist Theory of Gender

Gender roles are
learned through
observation and
imitation.
 Examples:
Who
takes out the
garbage? Who
writes thank you
notes? etc.
RONNIE KAUFMAN / CORBIS
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Cognitive Theory of Gender

Gender schemas organize the world into
“male” and “female” activities.

This is guided by an internal motivation to
conform to sociocultural standards of
gender.
 Example:
“Is this a (boy/girl) thing to do?”
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Sociocultural Theory of
Gender

Children learn the preferred behavior for
men and women in their society.

Androgyny = a healthy balance of male
and female psychological characteristics
 Is
considered a psychologically healthy way
to be, and will most fully occur if society
supports it
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10
Epigenetic systems theory
of gender

Gender typed behavior is shaped by
BOTH genetic differences between
male and female brains, and
environmental influences
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 10