Chapter 3: Reviewing Paragraph
Essentials
From this chapter, you’ll learn how to
• identify the key elements of paragraph
• use repetition and reference in a paragraph to
figure out which words are central to the
author’s message.
• paraphrase topic sentences that sum up, in
general terms, the overall main idea, or point,
of the paragraph.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Key Term: Topic
The topic of a paragraph
• is the subject under discussion.
• answers the question: What person, place, event, or thing
is the author discussing?
• is the starting point for figuring out the reading’s main
idea, or central thought.
• is repeated or referred to throughout
the paragraph.
• does not appear once and disappear; there are references
to it throughout the paragraph.
• can be expressed in single words or phrases.
e.g., Wikileaks, faking Facebook profiles, bird flu
vaccines, tax revolts, and cross word puzzles
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Spot Quiz: Identifying the Topic
Based on the previous list of topic characteristics, what would you say is the topic
of the following paragraph
1Throughout
their lives, human beings are bound to undergo periods
of psychological crisis.2 However, according to Erik Erikson’s theory
of psychological development, the threat of death brings about the
most profound form of psychological crisis. 3The threat or possibility
of death causes people to evaluate their lives and accomplishments
and affirm them as meaningful (leading to a feeling of integrity) or
meaningless (leading to a feeling of despair).4 They also tend to
become more philosophical and reflective, attempting to put their
lives into perspective. 5They reminisce, resolve past conflicts, and
integrate past events. 6They may also become more interested in
the religious and spiritual side of life. 7This “life review” may trigger
anxiety, regret, guilt, and despair, or it may allow people to face
their own death and the deaths of friends and relatives with a
feeling of peace and acceptance. (Adapted from Douglas A. Bernstein et al., Psychology.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997, p. 425.)
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
What’s the Best Answer?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Erik Erikson
psychological crisis
threat of death
theories of psychological development
life review before death
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Explaining the correct answer
If you chose c, you were right on target. The “threat of
death” is the only subject that appears throughout
the paragraph. In fact, after sentence 2, it is
mentioned or referred to in every sentence.
Sentence 3 repeats the word but sentences 4
through 7 all imply, or suggest, it. When you have a
chain of repetition and reference attached to a word
or phrase, you know it’s important. In this case, the
numerous references to the “threat of death”
identify it as the topic and a key element of the main
idea, which is the term up next.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Key Term: Main Idea
The main idea
• is the underlying thought that generally sums up the point or
message of a paragraph.
• can be stated or implied by the paragraph.
• answers the question: What does the author want to say
about the topic?
• includes the topic and a general comment about the topic.
• is developed, explained, or proven by almost all the sentences
in the paragraph.
• has to be expressed in a sentence, rather than single words
or phrases.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Spot Quiz: What’s the main idea of the following
paragraph?
•
1Otitis
externa, also called swimmer’s ear, is an inflammation
of the external ear canal. 2This disease commonly affects
swimmers who spend many hours in the water. 3Other causes
include trauma to the ear canal and swimming in
contaminated water. 4 Often the condition is due to bacterial
or fungal infection. 5Wearing headphones also makes a
favorable environment for the growth of microorganisms.
6Symptoms of otitis externa include an inflamed ear canal
with extreme pain, fever, pruritis ( intense itching), and
hearing loss. 7The ear may also drain clear or pus-filled fluid.
8Diagnosis is made on the basis of examination.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
What’s the Best Answer?
a) Otitis externa commonly affects swimmers.
b) Otitis externa typically afflicts people who wear ear phones a
lot.
c) An inflamed ear canal, fever, and intense itching are the main
symptoms of otitis externa.
d) An inflammation of the external ear canal is called otitis
externa, also known as swimmer’s ear.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Key Term: Topic Sentences
The topic sentence
• mentions or refers to the topic and comments on it.
• expresses the main idea in words chosen by the author.
• sums up the point of the paragraph in a complete sentence.
• is used by the author to give the reader a direct statement of
the paragraph’s point.
• usually appears at the beginning rather than the end of a
paragraph but can appear anywhere.
• is explained or made convincing by most of the other
sentences in the paragraph.
• can be turned into a question that can be answered by other
sentences in the paragraph.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Spot Quiz: Which Sentence is the Topic Sentence?
Sentence 1, 2, or 3?
•
It’s sad but true that D.W. Griffith’s Birth of a Nation helped revive what
had been a dying Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Still, Griffith’s film alone was not
what brought the Klan back to life. Like other, more respectable
organizations of the time, the KKK had learned that public relations
techniques could improve its image. In 1920, the Klan signed a contract
with a public relations firm, the Southern Publicity Association. The
contract guaranteed Southern Publicity a healthy percentage of all new
membership fees. Inspired by the lure of fat commissions, Southern
Publicity’s sales force fanned out across the country promoting Klan
membership. Within a year, membership had practically doubled. But it
wasn’t just the commission-hungry sales force that did the trick. In an
effort to give its image a positive spin, the Klan distributed newsletters,
staged pageants, and sold custom-made sheets. This continued until
1944, when the government sued the Klan for back taxes. As a result, the
organization was forced to go underground and had to give up on
polishing its public image. From that point on, publicity was the last thing
the Klan wanted.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Analyzing the Answer
If you guessed sentence 3, you were correct. Sentence 3
• appears at the beginning of the paragraph.
• is one of the most general sentences in the paragraph.
• could be used to sum up, in general, the message of the
entire paragraph.
• is developed by the remaining sentences in the paragraph.
• could be turned into a question—What public relations
techniques did the KKK use to improve its image?—that the
remaining sentences answer.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
What Do You Think? The Ku Klux Klan is still in existence today and some
people think it should be declared a terrorist organization with members
treated as terrorists. What are your thoughts on that idea?
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
A Word to the Wise
Notice that the topic sentence was not the first sentence in the
paragraph about the Klan. While some textbook authors make
it a point to introduce the topic sentence right off, for instance,
in business texts, this is not true for all textbook writers. So
don’t fall into the trap of reading the first sentence and
automatically expecting the rest of the paragraph to follow up
on it. The rest of the paragraph might not fulfill those
expectations. And then again it might. What do you say about
the paragraph that follows, is the first sentence the topic
sentence or not?
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Spot Quiz: What’s Your Guess? Is the First Sentence the Topic Sentence?
There’s one common element in shark attacks: They almost always attack silently,
without warning. However, they don’t always strike in the exact same way. On the
contrary, marine biologists have identified three different ways that sharks mount
an attack: the hit-and-run, the bump-and-bite and the coincidence attack. The hitand-run is the most common. The shark may see the sole of a swimmer's foot, think
it's a fish and take a bite before realizing this isn't its usual prey. It swims away,
leaving the bleeding victim in need of stitches. The bump-and-bite is far more
serious. Last year Chuck Anderson was training for a triathlon off Gulf Shores, Ala.,
when he was bumped by a bull shark, testing whether he was a worthy target of
prey. It decided that he was and then repeatedly attacked Anderson, who lost an
arm. There's also the coincidence attack. The shark is on the lookout for prey; it is
the right time to feed, and a target just happens on the scene. At that point, the
shark sees an opportunity and moves in, quite literally, for the kill. Adapted from
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1000420,00.html#ixzz17j7wAsqW
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Signs of the Topic Sentence
The topic sentence of the paragraph is sentence 3
because
• it’s one of the most general sentences in the
paragraph.
• it can be used to sum up the general point of the
paragraph.
• it is developed by the rest of the sentences in the
paragraph.
• if you turned sentence 3 into a question, the rest of
the sentences would answer that question.
• it appears at the beginning of the paragraph.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Now what about this paragraph?
• Were a narcissism epidemic truly striking the United States, as
is so often claimed, we ought to be seeing signs of it, but
we're not. Violence among young people is at the lowest
levels since the late 1960s. Rates of teen pregnancy,
substance abuse, smoking, and dropping out of high school
are all down as well. According to the National Center for
Education Statistics, more high-school students are taking
difficult courses like calculus and advanced science. According
to national statistics, achievement in reading and math among
schoolchildren has either remained stable or improved in
recent years (and that is on standardized exams, so grade
inflation is not the issue). And, as far as selfishness goes,
evidence suggests that young people are engaged in
community service and other civic activities more than
before. Adapted from ChristopherCopyright
J. Ferguson, Chronicle of Higher Ed, April 2010
© 2012 Laraine Flemming
Signs of the Topic Sentence
The topic sentence of the paragraph is sentence
1 because
• it’s one of the most general sentences in the
paragraph.
• it can be used to sum up the general point of the
paragraph.
• it is developed by the rest of the sentences in the
paragraph.
• if you turned sentence 3 into a question, the rest of
the sentences would answer that question.
• it appears at the beginning of the paragraph.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
A Word to the Wise
When you start to read, pay close attention to whether or not the
second sentence fulfills the promise of the first. If the first
sentence sets up expectations not met by the second, then the
chances are very good that the topic sentence is not the first
sentence.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
For an illustration, compare the opening
sentences of the two sample paragraphs.
• There’s one common element in shark attacks: They almost always attack
silently, without warning. However, they don’t always strike in the exact
same way. On the contrary, marine biologists have identified three
different ways that sharks mount an attack: the hit-and-run, the bumpand-bite and the coincidence attack. The hit-and-run is the most common.
In the above paragraph, sentence 2 doesn’t continue the point of sentence 1.
Opening with the transitional word “however “ it introduces a new idea,
which right away suggests that the topic sentence is not the first sentence
of the paragraph.
• Were a narcissism epidemic truly striking the United States, as is so often
claimed, we ought to be seeing signs of it, but we're not. Violence among
young people is at the lowest levels since the late 1960s.
In the above paragraph, the second sentence offers proof of the first, which
right away should suggest that the first sentence is the topic sentence.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Key Term: Transition
Transitions
• are words, phrases, or sentences announcing or signaling the direction a
writer’s thought will take in the sentences that follow.
• can signal addition, modification, reversal, concession (I agree in part but
still differ on this key point), similarity, and consequence.
• frequently appear at the beginnings of sentences although they don’t
have to be the first word in the sentence.
• can take many different forms.
• can be standard words and phrases like however, similarly, and in
contrast.
• can also be created by the author i.e. Transitions are verbal bridges that
can take a traditional form or be invented to suit the material.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Spot Quiz: Where’s the Transitional
Sentence in this paragraph?
1While
Alexander the Great is normally viewed as a hero of Greek
civilization, some modern historians consider him to be a murderous tyrant, in
the same category with Adolf Hitler.2 But this comparison seems extreme.
3Likening Alexander to Hitler ignores fundamental differences between the two
leaders.4 Alexander desired to explore the world, and while he fought to assert
his dominance over other cultures, he never attempted mass murder as Hitler
did.5 Alexander was also content to leave a city or town essentially untouched
as long as residents acknowledged him to be king.6 Hitler was incapable of such
political flexibility.7 Whereas Hitler’s lust for conquest and discovery matched
Alexander’s, his energies were turned toward a horrifying dream of “racial
purification.” 8Although both men sought to bring the known world under their
iron rule, Alexander maintained a moral standard—even in pitched battle—that
Adolf Hitler could never have grasped.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Key Term: Supporting Details
Supporting Details
• are more specific sentences that provide examples, reasons,
or other evidence that makes the main idea clear and
convincing.
• answer questions raised by the topic sentence.
• are dependent upon the main idea expressed in the topic
sentence.
• are the basis for main ideas that are implied, or suggested, by
the author but not directly stated.
• can be major or minor. Major details directly explain or prove
the main idea. Minor details further develop major ones.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Spot Quiz: Topic Sentence, Supporting Details
and Transitional Sentences
Which sentence is the topic sentence? What questions about the topic
sentence do the supporting details answer? And while you are at it, do
you see a transitional sentence anywhere?
• 1Although various cultures throughout history have adorned themselves
with body piercings, Americans never seemed especially interested in
piercing their body parts. 2Times have changed, however. 3Today, many
Americans are piercing any number of different body parts. 4Men and
women, for instance, now commonly pierce their ears once or even
multiple times. 5Wearing jewelry on pierced areas of the face, including
the nose, the eyebrow, the lip, and the tongue, also became very
fashionable among the young in the 1990s, although that trend has
declined over time. 6With clothing styles that feature a bare midriff, many
young women are now also likely to pierce their navels. 7Some of the
bravest of today’s trendsetters, male and female alike, have even gone so
far as to pierce their nipples. (Source of information: “Body Piercing,” Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Body_piercing )
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Two Words to the Wise
1. If you want to test your comprehension and remember what
you’ve read, try jotting main ideas of key paragraphs into the
margins of your textbook. If the main idea is expressed in a topic
sentence, make sure you paraphrase it. Whatever you do, don’t
just copy the topic sentence.
2. When we copy someone else’s words, there’s no guarantee
that we know what they mean. It’s only by translating someone
else’s ideas into our own words that we can be sure we have
understood them. With that in mind, here are some pointers on
paraphrasing.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
7 Pointers on Paraphrasing Topic Sentences
1.
Start by mentally breaking the topic sentence into its basic parts, the topic
and the author’s comment on the topic.
2.
Paraphrase in phrases rather than individual words. Turn, for instance,
“When the war came to an end” into “After the war was over.”
3.
Eliminate any unnecessary words that aren’t essential to expressing
either the topic or the author’s comment on the topic.
4.
Change the word order. Sometimes that will get you on the right track.
Compare for instance the following original with the paraphrase. Original:
W.H. Auden's best-known poem, "September 1, 1939," was written the
day that Germany invaded Poland and launched World War II.”
Paraphrase: On the day that Germany invaded Poland and launched world
War II, the poet W. H Auden completed his most famous work,
“September 1, 1939.”
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
7 Pointers on Paraphrasing Topic Sentences
5.
Divide one sentence into two. If the topic sentence reads like this,
“Twitter is a free social networking and micro-blogging service that
enables its users to send and read other users’ updates known as tweets”
you are free to paraphrase it like this: “Twitter is a free social networking
and micro-blogging service. Its members send out updates—called
“tweets”—which everyone in the network can read.”
6.
Don’t struggle to paraphrase technical words or specialized names of
people, objects and activities. For instance, if the passage is about the
Kachina dolls created by the Hopi Indians, you probably don’t know a
word to stand in for Kachina dolls so stick with Kachina dolls.
7.
Keep in mind that paraphrases for your notes don’t fall into the same
category as those written for papers. Paraphrases for your personal
reading notes need not be complete, unbiased or grammatically correct.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
A Very Important Word to the Wise
The most important rule for paraphrasing is this: Change the words, not the
meaning. That’s a rule you need to stick to, particularly when you are
paraphrasing for a term paper.
• If this is the original— “Facebook has more power in determining who can
speak and who can be heard around the globe than any Supreme Court
justice, any king or any president”– this cannot be the paraphrase: “Facebook
has every right to decide who can speak out and who can be heard around the
globe.”
•There’s a distinct difference in meaning between the original and the
paraphrase with the first sentence (the original) describing the situation and
the second sentence (the paraphrase) evaluating it.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Paraphrasing for Reading/Paraphrasing for Writing
Original: The Return of the Daughters, the documentary made by sisters Anna
Sophia and Elizabeth Botkin, chronicles the lives of young women who
have dedicated themselves to serving their husbands and their fathers,
viewing any professional ambitions or desires for independence as the
source of sin.
Paraphrasing for a Term Paper: The documentary, Return of the Daughters,
made by two sisters, Anna Sophia and Elizabeth Botkin, follows the lives
of young women who have given up the idea of professional achievement
or personal independence in favor of complete obedience to their fathers
and husbands.
Paraphrasing for Reading Notes: Documentary Return of the Daughters, made
by Botkin sisters, shows women choosing to live under the thumb of
husbands and fathers. See independence as sinful.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Spot Quiz: Picking the Best Paraphrase
Here’s the original statement: In an experiment
published three years ago, memory researcher
Elizabeth Loftus demonstrated that altering
photos of political protests in Italy and China
influenced how the protests were
remembered, with people remembering
incidents that never took place because they
had seen the incidents in faked photos.
Now pick the best paraphrase among four choices and be
prepared to explain why the wrong answers are wrong. Be
prepared as well to explain why your answer is correct.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Picking the Best Paraphrase
a.
In an experiment published three years ago, researcher Elizabeth Loftus shows
that altering photos of political protests in Italy and China affected how the
protests were remembered, and people remembered incidents that never took
place because they had looked at the incidents in fake photos.
b.
Memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus carried out an experiment three years ago
in which she showed subjects doctored photos of political protests in China and
Italy. Her study showed that people’s memories of the protests were influenced
by their having seen the faked photos. They tended, that is, to remember the
faked incidents from the photos.
c.
Memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus has proven what many people have long
suspected—that our memory cannot be trusted to correctly remember past
events. We are influenced by what we see and hear about events after they
occur and that profoundly distorts our memories of the events.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Final Wrap: Reviewing Paragraph
Essentials
1.
2.
3.
4.
True or False. The topic of the paragraph has to be introduced in the opening
sentence.
You can tell what words in a paragraph are important by searching out
_____________________.
True or False. The topic of the paragraph has to be expressed in a single word.
The topic is the starting point for the discovery of ____________.
5.
What’s the value of the following question: “What does the author want to say
about the topic?”
6.
True of False. The topic sentence is one of the more specific sentences in the
paragraph.
7.
True or False. The topic sentence is always the first or second sentence in the
paragraph.
8.
This phrase at the beginning of a sentence “At the start of the conflict” is an
example of a __________________.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming
Final Wrap: Reviewing Paragraph Essentials
9. The key rule of paraphrasing is ________________________.
10. True or False. The best way to paraphrase is word by word.
Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming