Week 3
Historical Survey 1: Ancient Greek Theatre
Ancient Greek theatre is the origin and matrix of the Western theatre. First time in history,
great playwrights established the autonomous form and structure of drama, and a grandscale spectacle for the whole community was created by integrating music and dance.
Comedy and tragedy were already accepted as different genres in practice, and Aristotle
formulated a great theoretical foundation on the aesthetics of drama regarding tragedy and
(a little bit of) comedy. Theatre architecture also showed its first appearance and continued
its influence in Hellenized and Roman era. Overall, the ancient Greek theatre in all aspects
(works, theory, architecture, staging conventions) made a great impact on the Renaissance
theatre in theory and practice, and its breath is still felt today.
1. Timeline of Greek Drama
Although the origins of Greek Tragedy and Comedy are obscure and controversial, our
ancient sources allow us to construct a rough chronology of some of the steps in their
development. Some of the names and events on the timeline are linked to passages in the
next section on the Origins of Greek Drama which provide additional context.
7th Century BC
c. 625
Arion at Corinth produces named dithyrambic choruses.
6th Century BC
600-570
540-527
536-533
525
511-508
c. 500
Cleisthenes, tyrant of Sicyon, transfers "tragic choruses" to Dionysus
Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, founds the festival of the Greater Dionysia
Thespis puts on tragedy at festival of the Greater Dionysia in Athens
Aeschylus born
Phrynichus' first victory in tragedy
Pratinus of Phlius introduces the satyr play to Athens
5th Century BC
499-496
c. 496
492
485
484
472
467
468
463?
458
456
c. 450
447
c. 445
441
438
431-404
431
Aeschylus' first dramatic competition
Sophocles born
Phrynicus' Capture of Miletus (Miletus was captured by the Persians in 494)
Euripides born
Aeschylus' first dramatic victory
Aeschylus' Persians
Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes
Aeschylus defeated by Sophocles in dramatic competition
Aeschylus' Suppliant Women
Aeschylus' Oresteia (Agamemnon, Libation Bearers, Eumenides)
Aeschylus dies
Aristophanes born
Parthenon begun in Athens
Sophocles' Ajax
Sophocles' Antigone
Euripides' Alcestis
Peloponnesian War (Athens and allies vs. Sparta and allies)
Euripides' Medea
c. 429
428
423
415
406
405
404
401
Sophocles' Oedipus the King
Euripides' Hippolytus
Aristophanes' Clouds
Euripides' Trojan Women
Euripides dies; Sophocles dies
Euripides' Bacchae
Athens loses Peloponnesian War to Sparta
Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus
4th Century BC
399
c. 380's
c. 330's
Trial and death of Socrates
Plato's Republic includes critique of Greek tragedy and comedy
Aristotle's Poetics includes defense of Greek tragedy and comedy
2. Origins of Greek Drama
Aristotle and a number of other writers proposed theories of how tragedy and comedy
developed, and told stories about the people thought to be responsible for their development.
Here are some excerpts from Aristotle and other authors which show what the ancient
Greeks thought about the origins of tragedy and comedy.
Aristotle on the origins of Tragedy and Comedy
1. Indeed, some say that dramas are so called, because their authors represent the characters as
"doing" them (drôntes). And it is on this basis that the Dorians [= the Spartans, etc.] lay claim to the
invention of both tragedy and comedy. For comedy is claimed by the Megarians here in Greece, who
say it began among them at the time when they became a democracy [c. 580 BC], and by the
Megarians of Sicily on the grounds that the poet Epicharmas came from there and was much earlier
than Chionides and Magnes; while tragedy is claimed by certain Dorians of the Peloponnese. They
offer the words as evidence, noting that outlying villages, called dêmoi by the Athenians, are called
kômai by them, and alleging that kômôdoi (comedians) acquired their name, not from kômazein (to
revel), but from the fact that, being expelled in disgrace from the city, they wandered from village to
village. The Dorians further point out that their word for "to do" is drân, whereas the Athenians use
prattein. (Aristotle: Poetics Chapter 3)
2. And in accordance with their individual types of character, poetry split into two kinds, for the graver
spirits tended to imitate noble actions and noble persons performing them, and the more frivolous
poets the doings of baser persons, and as the more serious poets began by composing hymns and
encomia, so these began with lampoons....Thus among the early poets, some became poets of heroic
verse and others again of iambic verse. Homer was not only the master poet of the serious vein,
unique in the general excellence of his imitations and especially in the dramatic quality he imparts to
them, but was also the first to give a glimpse of the idea of comedy [in the Margites]...And once
tragedy and comedy had made their appearance, those who were drawn to one or the other of the
branches of poetry, true to their natural bias, became either comic poets instead of iambic poets, or
tragic poets instead of epic poets because the new types were more important-- i.e. got more
favorable attention, than the earlier ones. Whether tragedy has, then, fully realized its possible forms
or has not yet done so is a question the answer to which both in the abstract and in relation to the
audience [or the theater] may be left for another discussion. Its beginnings, certainly, were in
improvisation [autoschediastikês], as were also those for comedy, tragedy originating in impromptus
by the leaders of dithyrambic choruses, and comedy in those of the leaders of the phallic
performances which still remain customary in many cities. Little by little tragedy grew greater as the
poets developed whatever they perceived of its emergent form, and after passing through many
changes, it came to a stop, being now in possession of its specific nature [tên hautês phusin]. It was
Aeschylus who first increased the number of the actors from one to two and reduced the role of the
chorus, giving first place to the dialogue. Sophocles [added] the third actor and [introduced] painted
scenery. Again, [there was a change] in magnitude; from little plots and ludicrous language (since the
change was from the satyr play), tragedy came only late in its development to assume an air of dignity,
and its meter changes from the trochaic tetrameter to the iambic trimeter. Indeed, the reason why
they used the tetrameter at first was that their form of poetry was satyric [i.e. for "satyrs"] and hence
more oriented toward dancing; but as the spoken parts developed, natural instinct discovered the
appropriate meter, since of all metrical forms the iambic trimeter is best adapted for speaking. (This is
evident, since in talking with one another we very often utter iambic trimeters, but seldom dactylic
hexameters, or if we do we depart from the tonality of normal speech. Again, [there was a change] in
the number of episodes -- but as for this and the way in which reportedly each of the other
improvements came about, let us take it all as said, since to go through the several details would no
doubt be a considerable task. (Aristotle: Poetics Chapter 4)
Stories about the poet Arion
3. Periander was tyrant of Corinth. The Corinthians say (and the Lesbians agree) that the greatest
wonder in his life was the voyage of Arion of Methymna to Taenarum on a dolphin. He was a
kitharode second to none at that time and the first of men whom we know to have composed the
dithyramb and named it and produced it in Corinth. (Herodotus I.23)
4. Arion, of Methymna...is said also to have invented the tragic mode (tragikoû tropou) and first
composed a stationary chorus and sung a dithyramb and named what the chorus sang and
introduced satyrs speaking verses. (The Suda lexicon)
5. Pindar says the dithyramb was discovered in Corinth. The inventor of the song Aristotle calls Arion.
He first led the circular chorus. (Proculus, Chrest. xii)
6. The first performance of tragedy was introduced by Arion of Methymna, as Solon said in his Elegies.
Charon of Lampsacus says that drama was first produced at Athens by Thespis. (John the Deacon,
Commentary on Hermogenes)
Stories about Cleisthenes, Sicyon, and Hero-drama
7. I must not omit to explain that [the tyrant] Cleisthenes picked on Melanippus as the person to
introduce into Sicyon, because he was a bitter enemy of Adrastus, having killed both Mecistes, his
brother, and Tydeus his son-in-law. After settling him in his new shrine, he transferred to him the
religious honors of sacrifice and festival which had previously been paid to Adrastus. The people of
Sicyon had always regarded Adrastus with great reverence, because the country had once belonged
to Polybus, his maternal grandfather, who died without an heir and bequeathed the kingdom to him.
One of the most important of the tributes paid him was the tragic chorus, or ceremonial dance and
song, which the Sicyonians celebrated in his honor; normally, the tragic chorus belongs to the worship
of Dionysus; but in Sicyon it was not so -- it was performed in honor of Adrastus, treating his life-story
and sufferings. Cleisthenes, however, changed this: he transferred the choruses to Dionysus, and the
rest of the ceremonial to Melanippus. (Herodotus V.67)
Stories trying to explain why, if tragedy originated from Dithyrambs sung in honor of Dionysus, not all
tragedies were about Dionysus ("Nothing to do with Dionysus": (ouden pros ton Dionuson)
8. When Phrynichus and Aeschylus developed tragedy to include mythological plots and disasters, it
was said, "What has this to do with Dionysus?" (Plutarch, Symp. Quaest.)
9. Nothing to do with Dionysus. When, the choruses being accustomed from the beginning to sing the
dithyramb to Dionysus, later poets abandoned this custom and began to write "Ajaxes" and
"Centaurs". Therefore the spectators said in joke, "Nothing to do with Dionysus." For this reason they
decided later to introduce satyr-plays as a prelude, in order that they might not seem to be forgetting
the god. (Zenobius V.40)
10. Nothing to do with Dionysus. When Epigenes the Sicyonian made a tragedy in honor of Dionysus,
they made this comment; hence the proverb. A better explanation: Originally when writing in honor of
Dionysus they competed with pieces which were called satyric. Later they changed to the writing of
tragedy and gradually turned to plots and stories in which they had no thought for Dionysus. Hence
this comment. Chamaeleon writes similarly in his book on Thespis. (The Suda lexicon)
Stories about Thespis the Athenian playwright
11. From when Thespis the poet first acted, who produced a play in the city and the prize was a goat...
(Marmor Parium, under the year about 534 BC).
12. This is Thespis, who first moulded tragic song, inventing new joys for his villagers, when Bacchus
led the wine-smeared (?) chorus, for which a goat was the prize (?) and a basket of Attic figs was a
prize too. The young change all this. Length of time will discover many new things. But mine is mine.
(Dioscorides, Anth. Pal. VII. 410)
13. The unknown poetry of the tragic Muse Thespis is said to have discovered and to have carried
poems on wagons, which they sang and acted, their faces smeared with wine-lees. (Horace, Ars
Poetica 275-277)
14. As of old tragedy formerly the chorus by itself performed the whole drama and later Thespis
invented a single actor to give the chorus a rest and Aeschylus a second and Sophocles a third,
thereby completing tragedy... (Diogenes Laertius III. 56)
15. Thespis: Of the city of Ikarios in Attica, the sixteenth tragic poet after the first tragic poet, Epigenes
of Sicyon, but according to some second after Epigenes. Others say he was the first tragic poet. In his
first tragedies he anointed his face with white lead, then he shaded his face with purslane in his
performance, and after that introduced the use of masks, making them in linen alone. He produced in
the 61st Olympiad (536/5-533/2 BC). Mention is made of the following plays: Games of Pelias or
Phorbas, Priests, Youths, Pentheus. (The Suda lexicon)
3. The Three Greek Tragedians in the 5th Century
1) Aeschylus (523-456 ca): His are the oldest surviving plays, and he began
competing 449 B.C. at the City Dionysia festival. Most of his plays were part of
trilogies; the only extant Greek trilogy is The Orestia. He introduced the 2nd actor
(Thespis was one, the 2nd added; after 468 B.C. Sophocles is believed to have
introduced the 3rd actor, which Aeschylus then used.
Characteristics of Aeschylus's plays:
o
o
o
o
o
Characters have limited number of traits, but clear and direct.
Emphasizes forces beyond human control.
Interested in philosophical issues
Power of state eventually replacing personal revenge
clash of private revenge and public justices are all reconciled in the end
2) Sophocles (496-406 B.C.): He won 24 contests, never lower than 2nd believed to
have introduced the 3rd actor; fixed the chorus at 15 (had been 50)
Characteristics of Sophocles' plays:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
More emphasis on individual characters
reduced role of chorus
complex characters, psychologically well-motivated
characters subjected to crisis leading to suffering and self-recognition
including a higher law above man
exposition carefully motivated
scenes suspensefully climactic
action clear and logical
poetry clear and beautiful
few elaborate visual effects
theme emphasized: the choices of people
3) Euripides (480-406 B.C.): He was very popular in later Greek times, little
appreciated during his life sometimes known as "the father of melodrama"
Characteristics of Euripides' plays:
o
o
o
o
o
o
dealt with subjects usually considered unsuited to the stage which questioned
traditional values (Medea loving her stepson, Medea murdering her children)
dramatic method often unclear, not always clearly causally related episodes,
with many reversals, dues-ex-machina endings
many practices were to become popular: using minor myths or severely
altered major ones
less poetic language, realistic characterizations and dialog
Tragedy was abandoned in favor of melodramatic treatment.
Theme emphasized: sometimes chance rules world, people are more
concerned with morals than gods are.
The basic structure of a Greek tragedy
After a prologue spoken by one or more characters, the chorus enters, singing and dancing.
Scenes then alternate between spoken sections (dialogue between characters, and between
characters and chorus) and sung sections (during which the chorus dance). Here are the
basic parts of a Greek Tragedy:
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a. Prologue: Spoken by one or two characters before the chorus appears. The
prologue usually gives the mythological background necessary for understanding the
events of the play.
b. Parodos: This is the song sung by the chorus as it first enters the orchestra and
dances.
c. First Episode: This is the first of many "episodes", when the characters and chorus
talk.
d. First Stasimon: At the end of each episode, the other characters usually leave the
stage and the chorus dances and sings a stasimon, or choral ode. The ode usually
reflects on the things said and done in the episodes, and puts it into some kind of
larger mythological framework.
For the rest of the play, there is alternation between episodes and stasima, until you
reach the final scene.
e. Exodos: At the end of play, the chorus exits singing a processional song which
usually offers words of wisdom related to the actions and outcome of the play.
1. Satyr Play and Greek Comedy in 5th Century
1) The Satyr Play
The Satyr Play, of unknown origin, had to be mastered by tragedians. One satyr play has to
be performed if you want to compete in the City Dionysia.
o
o
o
o
o
o
Chorus: half-human, half-beast companions of Dionysus
sometimes the story is connected with the tragedy it accompanies
burlesque of mythology - ridiculing gods or heroes
structure similar to tragedy
everyday and colloquial language
shorter afterpieces to tragedies
Examples: The Cyclops - Euripides - from The Odyssey - where Odysseus
meets the Cyclops and a captive band of satyrs
2) Greek Comedy
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not admitted to Dionysus festival till 487-486 B.C.
unknown origins or influences
perhaps from improvisations of leaders of phallic songs?
or from mime: satirical treatment of domestic situations or burlesqued myths
six comic dramatists besides Aristophanes (his are the only extant works)
Called "Old Comedy" (Menander's plays are considered to be Greek "New Comedy")
Direct commentary on contemporary society, politics, literature, and Peloponnesian
War.
Based on a "happy idea" -> a private peace with a warring power or a sex strike to
stop war (Lysistrata)
exaggerated, farcical, sensual pleasures.
Structure of the Comedy:
Part One:
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
Prologue - chorus gives debate or "agon" over merits of the “happy idea.”
Parabasis - a choral ode addressing the audience, in which a social or political
problem is discussed
Part Two:

Following scenes show the result of the happy idea
final scene (komos) : all reconcile and exit to feast or revelry
In 404 B.C., Athens was defeated in the Peloponnesian War, and social and political satire
declines.
5. Production / Finance:
The first competition for tragedy was added to the City Dionysia in 534, probably as an
outgrowth of the dithyramb competition. Playwrights applied to the archon (religious leader)
for a chorus, and expense was borne by a choregai, wealthy citizen chosen by the archon as
part of civic/religious duty. Choregus paid for training, costuming, etc. (choregus also refers
to leader of the chorus.)
The State was responsible for theatre buildings, prizes, payments to actors (and perhaps to
playwrights). Prizes were awarded jointly to playwrights and choregus. Dramatists
themselves probably "directed" the tragic plays, but probably not the comedies. Aeschylus
and others in his time acted, trained chorus, wrote music, choreographed, etc. Playwrights
called didaskalas (teacher) -- [didactic = teaching].
6. Actors and Acting:
Tragedy:
Playwrights originally acted, but by 449 B.C. with the contests for tragic actors, they didn't.
Actors were semi-professional, at best. Three-actor rule (that only three actors were in
productions) seems fixed by 468, and supported by some evidences, but still questioned by
some. Comedy had fewer restrictions
Playwrights cast till 449 B.C., with the advent of the contests, then the main actors were
chosen by lot and the others by the main actors and the playwright. Actors were paid by the
State. Only the leading actors were eligible for competition.
Three kinds of delivery: speech, recitative, and song.
No facial importance - masks used.
Gesture and movement were broadened and simplified.
Acting styles
Actors usually played more than one role, and men played all the parts A vocal acting must
have been declamatory because they had to project appropriate emotional tone, mood, and
character to a great number of audience. The stylized acting then is obvious as the masks
and choral declamation and dancing are added to this declamatory acting.
7. The chorus
1) Tragedy
It was dominant in early tragedies of Aeschylus, it gradually diminishes in number and t by
Euripides, it is only loosely related to the action
Size: traditionally from 50 to 12 to 15. It’s generally believed to be 15 by the time of
Sophocles and Euripides.
Later diminished in time.
Entered with stately march, sometimes singing or in small groups.
Choral passages sung and danced in unison, sometimes divided into two groups.
Sometimes exchanged dialog with the main characters, rarely individual speaking (though
some say the choregus may have spoken / sung alone).
The type of groupings are unknown.
2) Old Comedy
The number of chorus were about 24 people, sometimes divided into two. Sometimes they
could have both genders as in the case of Lysistrata. They were allowed more varied
entrances, groupings, and more active participation as actors.
Functions of the chorus
1) An agent: gives advice, asks, takes part
2) Establishes ethical framework, sets up standard by which action will be judged
3) Ideal spectator: it reacts as playwright hopes audience would
4) Sets mood and heightens dramatic effects
5) Adds movement, spectacle, song, and dance
6) Rhythmical function - pauses/paces the action so that the audience can reflect.
The chorus was usually made up of amateurs - 11 months training - the most expensive part
of the production.
8. Music and Dance
Music
Most believe music was integral part of the performance, and most dialogue was recitative.
o
o
o
o
Dance
probably accompanied by a single flute, sometimes a lute
no one knows who composed the music nor what it sounded like
probably resembled oriental quarter tones
different modes of music associated with comedy or tragedy
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Tragedy: called emmeleia (meaning harmony, grace, and dignity)
Comedy: less dignified-jumping, spinning, etc.
Satyrs: lewd pantomime, etc.
9. Costume and Masks
Costumes
A standard costume for tragedy must have been a chiton, a sleeved, decorated tunic, fulllength usually, derived from robes of Dionysian priests. Cotharnus is a high boot or soft shoe,
perhaps elevated with a thick sole. A short cloak may also have been worn, called a chalmys,
or a long one called a himation.
Vase painting are our major evidence, but the vases are earlier than the 5th century B.C. and
many vase painting show other garments, including nudity. Furthermore, the plays
themselves have few references to costumes. So, any reconstructive comment on the
costumes is at best a combination of secondary proof and well-guessed speculation.
Comic costumes would have been adapted from everyday Greek life. Chiton was made too
short to emphasize comic elements. Male characters, not the chorus, wore a phallus. Slaves
and old men wore comically exaggerated costume. Women probably wore more everyday
costume.
In Satyr plays, actors would wear goatskin loincloth with phallus in front and tail in back.
Masks
The use of masks in ancient greek theater draw their origin from the ancient dionysiac cult.
Thespis was the first writer, who used a mask.
The members of the chorus wore masks, usually similar to each other but completely
different from the leading actors. Because the number of actors varied from one to three,
they had to put on different masks, in order to play more roles.
The actors were all men. The mask was therefore necessary to let them play the female
roles.
Some people claim that the masks had one more significance: they added resonance to the
voice of an actor so that everyone in the huge ancient theater could hear him (Baldry 1971).
But that may not be the case. It’s been said that the perfection of the acoustics in the ancient
theater of Epidavros is amazing. Even the audience of the last row can hear a whisper from
the orchestra.
Greek masks aesthetically are connected with some Asian traditional masks of Noh or
Korean mask dance. In all, masks determine the identity of the character, not the actorbearer. In Korea too Miyal Halmi is performed by a male dancer who wears’ old woman’s
mask. Even in some Noh play, a mask put on a folded clothing is assumed a perfect
character.
Usually the masks were made of linen, wood, or leather. A marble or stone face was used as
a mould for the mask. Human or animal hair was also used. The eyes were fully drawn but in
the place of the pupil of the eye was a small hole so that the actor could see.
10. Stages and Staging
Greek tragedies and comedies were always performed in outdoor theaters. Early Greek
theaters were probably little more than open areas in city centers or next to hillsides where
the audience, standing or sitting, could watch and listen to the chorus singing about the
exploits of a god or hero. From the late 6th century BC to the 4th and 3rd centuries BC there
was a gradual evolution towards more elaborate theater structures, but the basic layout of
the Greek theater remained more or less the same. The completed stone auditorium in the
4th century B.C could accommodate 14,000 to 17,000 persons. The major components of
Greek theater are labeled on the diagram above.
1.Theatron: The theatron (literally, "viewing-place") is where the spectators sat. The theatron
was usually part of hillside overlooking the orchestra, and often wrapped around a large
portion of the orchestra (see the diagram above). Spectators in the fifth century BC probably
sat on cushions or boards, but by the fourth century the theatron of many Greek theaters
had marble seats.
2. Orchestra: The orchestra (literally, "dancing space") was normally circular. It was a level
space where the chorus would dance, sing, and interact with the actors who were on the
stage near the skene. The earliest orchestras were simply made of hard earth, but in the
Classical period some orchestras began to be paved with marble and other materials. In the
center of the orchestra there was often a thymele, or altar. The orchestra of the theater of
Dionysus in Athens was about 60 feet in diameter.
4. Skene: The skene (literally, "tent") was the building directly behind the stage. During the
5th century, the stage of the theater of Dionysus in Athens was probably raised only two or
three steps above the level of the orchestra, and was perhaps 25 feet wide and 10 feet deep.
The skene was directly in back of the stage, and was usually decorated as a palace, temple,
or other building, depending on the needs of the play. It had at least one set of doors, and
actors could make entrances and exits through them. There was also access to the roof of
the skene from behind, so that actors playing gods and other characters (such as the
Watchman at the beginning of Aeschylus' Agamemnon) could appear on the roof, if needed.
5. Parodos: The parodoi (literally, "passageways") are the paths by which the chorus and
some actors (such as those representing messengers or people returning from abroad)
made their entrances and exits. The audience also used them to enter and exit the theater
before and after the performance.
The Theatre of Dionysos. No trace has been preserved of the 5th-century theatre which
must have been simple in form with a few rows of wooden and stone seats. The preserved
ruins belong to the monumental theatre built by Lycourgos. The permanent skene (stage)
was then constructed, extending in the width of the orchestra. After its destruction by Sulla in
86 B.C., the theatre and the skene were rebuilt.