AP European History Test
Review #4
Italy in 1848
Italy was divided into several small states, most of
whom were occupied by foreign powers.
Italian nationalists wanted unification and formed
secret societies such as the carbonari and Mazzini’s
Young Italy.
The “risorgimento” (revival of nationalist pride ) drove
the revolution of 1848.
Italy in 1848
Spring 1848: revolts broke out in the Papal states, Sardinia. These
rulers granted liberal constitutions.
Lombardy-Venetia revolted against Austria and Naples, Sardinia, and
the Pope sent troops to help them.
The Roman Republic
When it appeared that Austria was going to defeat any chance at
Italian unification and independence, radical revolution broke out in
Rome & Sardinia.
Garibaldi & Mazzini ousted the Pope & proclaimed a democratic
republic in Rome. In Sardinia, the king was forced to continue
fighting the Austrians.
The Austrians defeated Sardinia, and Napoleon III sent troops to
reinstate the Pope.
Austria in 1848
Prince Metternich dominated politics throughout
Austria and Germany. To maintain conservative
power Metternich issued the Carlsbad Decrees. These
censored the press and universities. Secret police
were used to enforce laws.
The Austrian empire included a large number of
ethnic minorities within its borders. Their individual
nationality was suppressed by the empire.
In the “March Days,” revolts occurred in Italy,
Hungary, Bohemia, & Austria itself.
Austria in 1848
The revolutions were led by a minority of intellectuals,
students, and labor leaders and were not widely supported by
the majority of the people.
The only lasting result was the abdication of Metternich.
Hungary
In Hungary, Louis Kossuth led a revolt in the Hungarian Diet for
Magyar nationalism. He promoted the Magyars but suppressed the
other Slavic minorities.
The revolt made Hungary autonomous while accepting the Austrian
emperor as the king of Hungary. He outlawed serfdom, forced the
nobility to pay taxes, and required public officials to speak Hungarian.
Russia helped Austria put down the Hungarian revolt.
Why Did the Revolutions Fail?
1)
They lacked a cohesive vision and institutional forces- like an
army.
2)
Conservatives successfully exploited the middle-class fears of
a radical revolution, like those that had taken place in
France.
3)
Rulers pitted ethnic minorities against one another, which
split the power of the revolutionaries.
Romanticism
Romanticism was a literary, musical, and artistic movement
dominating European culture in the first half of the 19th century.
Romantics reacted against the Industrial Revolution and
Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason and science instead stressing
emotions, nature, nationalism, religion, and the unique individual
(rather than what was universal for all people)
Literature- Frankenstein by Mary Shelly and poems by Lord Byron
Art- Turner
Music- Beethoven
The -ISMs
The period of 1815-1859 can be termed the Age of
Ideologies. In response to the French and Industrial
Revolutions, many Europeans lived according to a set
of ideas that provided a view of human affairs (and
human character) as well as a blue print for changing
the world. Such ideologies or “isms” influenced how
people viewed the world and motivated them to take
action.
Conservatism
Should not be equated with complete rejection of change (such adherents
are known as reactionaries).
Defying the optimistic view that human nature was a tabala rasa,
Conservatives believed that human nature was driven by passions.
Edmund Burke is the father of conservatism. He believed in change
through adaption, not revolution. Humans were capable of reason, but
often employ it as an excuse for self-interest. He was originally a liberal, but
his experiences in the French Revolution changed him.
Joseph de Maistre- believed in divine right. He demonstrated how once the
French Revolution lost its ties to the church, monarchy, and nobility it
became violent.
Conservative philosophies supported the restoration of governments to the
pre-1815 order.
Economists
Jeremy Bentham: Utilitarianism:
Believed in laissez-faire economics but wanted policies
which would effect the “greatest good for the greatest
number.”
Believed that if an individual harmed the common good
by acting in his own self-interest, then the government
should step in.
Argued to end slavery, separation of church and state,
and women’s rights
Liberalism
John Stuart Mill: On Liberty (1859)
Father of Liberalism
Advocated a limited government to guarantee individual
rights
Based on utilitarianism
Mill’s Principle: Persons should have complete freedom
of action, speech, etc. as long as their actions do not
harm others. If they cause harm, then the gov’t should
stop them.
Concerned about the “tyranny of the majority” that
could harm individual rights
Mill, continued
Mill served in Parliament for a time and championed the following
causes:
women’s suffrage (collaborated with wife Harriet Taylor)
the right of workers to organize into unions
labor legislation to improve working conditions
universal suffrage (for all men & women over 21)
universal education
equal political/economic rights for women
proportional representation.
Early Socialists
Socialism can be defined as an economic system in
which the means of production, exchange, and
distribution are owned by the state rather than private
individuals.
Designed to abolish the abuses of capitalism by
promoting social and economic planning through
collectivization.
Socialism ranged from strictly economic reform in the
context of a democratic government to the extreme of
Marxism.
Utopian Socialists
Utopian socialists offered no practical plan for achieving the ideal
societies they envisioned and thought industrialists would support
their ideas as soon as they saw their merit.
It provided little practical success so it paved the way for more
militant Marxism
Robert Owen: (1771-1858): successful English industrialist
Believed that environmental factors influenced people and thought
factories and communities needed to be clean, and provide decent
wages.
Wanted to outlaw child labor & provide mandatory education.
Created a model cotton mill in Scotland, but failed in his attempts in
Indiana
Did a lot to popularize the need for social reform in England.
Other examples include: Henris de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier of
France.
Practical Socialists
Louis Blanc: French: (1811 - 1882) organized a socialist political party
to achieve socialist measures in France.
Believed that governments have the duty of providing workers with farms
and shops to replace privately owned ones. He called these national
workshops.
These would be run by the workers for their own good.
Wanted democratic government.
Undermined by the provisional gov’t in 1848.
Marxism
Founded by Marx & Engels, it was a militant form of socialism which
is often called Communism.
Marx and Engels asserted their ideas in The Communist Manifesto
(1848)
Differed from other forms of socialism because it called for a
revolutionary overthrow of the existing system.
Marxist Ideas
History must be interpreted economically.
Economic factors shape the institutions of civilization, such as religion &
politics.
Surplus Value: the value of all commodities is a result of the labor put
into them.
If a worker gets paid less than the labor he put into a product, he is being
exploited.
“History is a constant series of class struggles” between the exploited
(the working proletariat) & the exploiters (the middle class
bourgeoisie).
More Marxist Ideas
Capitalism is a necessary step in the eventual development of
Communism.
Marx envisioned a situation in which workers all over the world
would eventually overthrow their existing conditions and create
Communist societies.
Revolution in which the proletariat overthrows the bourgeoisie is
inevitable but must be led by Marxist intellectuals.
A temporary “dictatorship of the proletariat” must be established
after the revolution to reorder society.
When this had occurred, he believed there would be no need for
governments and predicted the “withering of the state.”
More Marxist Ideas
Atheist:
Believed in no God or divine presence and believed that all things
happened mechanically with no divine guiding principle.
•
Believed in the principle “From each according to his ability, to each
according to his need.
•
Believed in equality of women and racial equality.
•
Wanted an end to slavery and imperialism
19th Century British Political
and Economic Problems
The Landed Aristocracy still monopolized political
power due to voting restrictions (10% of adult males
could vote in England in 1848).
Rotten Boroughs kept industrial centers from being
fairly represented (Manchester had no representatives
at all in 1800)
No secret ballot
More Problems
•
Property & religious qualifications restricted the right
to hold political office.
•
No salaries for the members of the House of
Commons
•
The House of Lords could block all legislation passed
by the House of Commons except for revenue bills.
More Problems
Landed interests passed the Corn Laws, protecting
British grain from competition but at the same time
harming consumers with higher prices.
Democratic movements pushed for reform. One such
peaceful gathering in 1819 in Manchester was met with
armed forces, killing 11 and wounding hundreds. This
event became known as the Peterloo Massacred. The
British recognized the need for liberal reforms in order
to avoid revolution. There willingness to do so kept
England from experiencing the revolutions on the
continent.
The Reform Bill of 1832
It did the following:
Extended suffrage to most of the middle class and small land owners,
but still denied it to most urban workers & peasants by a property
requirement.
Provided for redistricting to eliminate rotten boroughs
1820’s: Combination Acts (that suppressed unions) was repealed
1833: Slavery abolished in the British Empire
Poor Law of 1834- the law actually punished the poor by making relief in
government workhouses more unpleasant than any job
1846- Corn Laws were repealed
More Reforms
1832 the Sadler Commission investigated child labor
in mines and factories. The appalling testimony of
workers convinced Parliament to pass the Factory Act
of 1833, which limited working hours and child
education.
Edwin Chadwick’s publication The Sanitary Condition of
the Laboring Population (1842) highlighted the need for
sewage and sanitary conditions. Soon after, Parliament
passed the Public Health Act of 1848, to develop
sanitary systems. This was also impacted by Cholera
outbreaks.
Chartism
Organized in the 1830’s by city workers to achieve political reforms
and improve their living conditions.
The charter demanded:
Universal manhood suffrage
Salaries for Parliament
Although Parliament refused to give in to Chartist demands (as a whole
package), most of their demands were met through reform legislation,
and the movement died out because it became associated with violence.
More Reforms
Reform Bill of 1884: universal suffrage
Sponsored by the Liberal Leader, Gladstone.
Purpose was to gain support for both the Whig and Tory parties, but
backfired when workers created their own Labour Party.
Reform Bill of 1918: Extended Suffrage to British women over 30 years of
age.
Socialist Parties Pre-WWI
•
German Social Democratic Party: advocated many
Marxist ideas & gained a large number of seats in the
Reichstag.
•
Fabian Society: Britain: formed to spread socialist
ideas. Its members later formed the modern Labor
party.
The Irish Problem
The Irish people were bitter toward the British for the
following reasons:
English absentee landlords controlled most Irish land and charged
high rents. They evicted peasants who couldn’t pay.
The English did little to relieve the misery created by the crop
failures of the 1840’s (Irish potato famine)
The Irish wanted home rule but didn’t get it in the 19th
century.
Realism
Failure of the 1848 revolutions put Europe into a new era.
Intellectually, the Romantic temperament no longer held sway, as
artists, scientists, and politicians adopted a hard-headed mindset
of realism. Military power, industry, and organization- products of
modern life replaced the imaginary, spiritual, emotional, and
idealistic.
The realists focused their attention on the world as it really was.
They focused on the lives of people who were directly impacted by
the industrial world.
Literature- Charles Dickens and his stories of corrupt business
practices and cruel city life. Wrote Hard Times.
Art- Gustave Courbet, whose Stonebreakers depicts two manual
laborers.
Crimean War (1853-1856)
The Revolutions of 1848 undermined the Concert of
Europe- the agreement of the great powers to work together
collectively.
Cause: The Ottoman Empire had slowly receded in power
and was continuously prone to Russian attack since they
wanted a warm-weather sea port.
Fearing Russian expansion, the British and French went to
war over a petty issue regarding concessions from the
Ottoman sultan in protecting Christian minorities in the
region.
British and French and Italians vs. Russia. Austria chose
not to help Russia, although it had just been aided in the
Hungarian Revolution of 1848.
Results of the Crimean War
Russia is defeated. Nicholas I (reactionary) dies. The
new tsar Alexander II realized Russia’s technological
and economic backwardness. He will work to reform
Russia.
Austria and Russia are now enemies, competing for
control over the Baltic Peninsula. Although in the
Treaty of Paris (1856) Russia agreed to halt expansion
in the Baltics.
The Concert of Europe is destroyed. Now states are
encouraged to pursue national interests with little
regard for international order.
Russia in the 19th Century
Russian society remained semi-feudal and backward, with much
popular discontent.
Russia remained isolated from Western culture and did not
modernize.
Oppression & censorship increased and the government was
inefficient.
Czars were anti-liberal
Russia was weak internationally & began to lose foreign wars
(Crimean, Russo-Japanese)
Nicholas I (1825-55)
Dictatorial ruler who stood for reactionism, strong nationalism,
autocracy, and religious orthodoxy.
He did the following:
Enforced strict censorship with secret police
Lost the Crimean War
Put down a Polish revolt
Alexander II (1855-81)
A conservative reformer, who abolished serfdom in 1861.
Peasants continued to live in villages until they paid for the
land they received (which was of the poorest quality).
Russians continued to suffer from land shortages and rural
overpopulation.
Zemstvo Laws: created local assemblies to solve local
problems in 1864. They were dominated by the nobility.
As reform led to radical demands, many groups began to
plot and carry out terrorist acts.
1881: Alexander was assassinated on the same day he was
going to create a constitutional monarchy for Russia
France
1852: Napoleon III declares the establishment of the 2nd
French Empire. He had been elected as president, but had
declared himself emperor after a coup.
His domestic policies included:
Vast public works projects (canals, roads, RR)
Rebuilt the city of Paris- tore down old city walls, constructed a
modern sanitary system, built boulevards and shopping centers.
He said “I found Paris stinking, and left it smelling sweet.”
Removed legal barriers to trade unions
Encouraged industrialization and promoted economic prosperity,
gaining the support of the middle class.
French Foreign Policy
Napoleon III followed these policies:
Stopped Russian aggression in the Crimean War.
Helped Piedmont gain independence from Austria, but stationed troops
in Rome to protect the Pope. (This was to gain Catholic support)
Failed effort to create an empire in Mexico.
Problems in the French Empire
Catholics were mad because Napoleon had helped
Piedmont
Republicans were mad that they didn’t have a
democratic form of government.
Workers were striking due to poor wages & working
conditions.
French Revolution of 1870
1870: Napoleon plunged France into war with Prussia
in hopes of restoring the glory of France (remember
the Ems Dispatch)
After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war,
revolts broke out & Napoleon III abdicated.
Paris Commune refused to surrender. Eventually they
were crushed and the Third Republic began, with
universal male suffrage. Any hopes of a monarchy are
now dead.
Dreyfus Affair
Dreyfus Affair: a Jewish Republican army captain was
framed by monarchist army officers for treason. His
unfair trial discredited the monarchist faction of the
government.
Resulted in the formal separation of the government
from the Catholic church.
An increase in anti-Semitism was seen.
Italian Unification
In the Renaissance, the Italian city-states lost their
independence as a result of foreign invasion.
The policies of Napoleon (who had invaded Italy)
revived the dreams of Italian nationalism. The
Congress of Vienna’s restoration of traditional rule
frustrated these aspirations.
After 1815, Italy was disunited and consisted of the
following parts:
Kingdom of the 2 Sicily's (Naples) in Southern Italy
Papal States
Austrian-controlled regions in North-central Italy
The free Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont in North Italy.
Italian Unification
Several methods to unite Italy existed:
Giuseppe Mazzini: Founder of “Young Italy” and called the
“heart” of unification or “the pen” due to his nationalist
writings.
Giuseppe Garibaldi: Red Shirts (known as the sword)
Cavour: Moderate Liberalism: wanted a constitutional
monarchy under the king of Sardinia-Piedmont for which he
was the prime minister (known as the “brain”)
The Process of Unification
Cavour was the mastermind of the successful
unification of Italy. He believed in realpolitik
He did the following things:
Strengthened the army and economy of SardiniaPiedmont (he was its Prime Minister)
Created an alliance with Napoleon III at the Plombiers
conference to attack Austria.
Provoked war with Austria and forced Austria to ceded
Lombardy to Sardinia-Piedmont.
More Steps in the Unification
Process
The Duchies of Parma, Tuscany, and Modena successfully revolted
against Austria and united with Sardinia-Piedmont in the Northern
Italy.
Garibaldi did the following won many battles in S. Italy and then
turned the region over to King Victor Emmanuel II of SardiniaPiedmont to avoid further war and unite Italy.
Cavour invaded the Papal States, taking over everything except Rome.
Unification was complete by 1870
Italian Unification
Government consisted of a limited
monarchy with a bicameral legislature
consisting of a senate (appointed for life
by the king) and a chamber of deputies
(elected by the middle & upper classes).
The political system became very corrupt
and involved bribing political opponentsknown as trasformismo.
Problems in Italy
Italy was poor with a large illiterate population.
The Pope condemned the new gov’t and decreed that Catholics
should not participate in it.
The north was more developed than the south and the 2 regions had
little in common, economically and socially.
Since it unified late, Italy tried to compensate by aggressively acquiring
colonies.
German Unification
Unification was supported by the growing middle class & cityworkers. (Their influence was growing due to industrialization).
Competition between Austria & Prussia further complicated the
unification process.
A turning point in Germany occurred when King William I
became the king of Prussia in 1861.
Obstacles to German
Unification
The Holy Roman Emperor never developed into an
absolute monarch b/c he was elected by the German
princes.
The religious wars with their formalized settlement in
the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia further split German
states.
In the 19th Century, the competition between Prussia
and Austria kept either of them from consolidating
with other smaller states.
Liberals in 1848, failed to act decisively, losing their
opportunity of unification.
German Unification
William I inherited the Prussian throne.
William appointed Otto von Bismarck as chancellor in
1862.
Bismarck was a typical conservative junker who opposed
liberalism
He raised money for the army by disregarding the
constitution.
Believed in Realpolitik
Believed “blood and iron” could unify Germany, not
liberalism
Bismarck
Known as the “iron chancellor,” Bismarck
accomplished the following:
Created a powerful & efficient army
1864: Danish war: ended Danish control of Schlesswig
& Holstein with the assistance of Austria
1866: Austro-Prussian war (7 weeks war): established
Prussian control of the Northern German states in the
North German Confederation. He was lenient in his
treatment of Austria, so they could later be used in
unification
The Franco-Prussian War
(1871)
Realizing that only a war with France would allow the annexation of
the S. German states, Bismarck engineered a war with Napoleon III in
1870 through the editing of the Ems Dispatch. (“Realpolitik”)
German armies overwhelmed French armies in several months, and in
the Treaty of Frankfurt, France ceded Alsace & Lorraine to Germany
and paid reparations to Germany.
Unification
Following the Franco-Prussian War, the 4 Southern
Catholic German provinces joined the Prussian dominated
Germany.
In 1871, the German Empire was declared with King
William I as its Kaiser (emperor).
This made Germany the most powerful nation on the
continent, and its military power began to rival that of
England. Its industrial power surpassed England.
It developed a constitutional monarchy with the Reichstag
as the Parliament.
Accomplishments of Bismarck
Consolidation of the German Empire:
created a uniform currency, and legal code.
Tried to suppress the Catholics in the South
Catholics organized the Center Party to oppose certain policies of the
central gov’t, & Bismarck resented them because of their ties to the
Catholic Church
Bismarck passed a series of laws to restrict the church (restricting
education & clergy) and the KULTURKAMPF resulted.
It proved unpopular, so eventually, Bismarck backed down.
Other Actions of Bismarck
Tried to suppress the socialists:
Socialists appealed to urban workers who resented low pay and bad
working conditions.
Bismarck tried to suppress them forcibly in 1878 with anti-socialist
laws, but this failed.
By the 1880’s, Bismarck began to undermine them by supporting
social legislation to gain the support of the workers.
These programs included unemployment insurance & workers’
comp., and social security payments for retired Germans. First
welfare state in Europe.
German Policies
1888: William II became king and Bismarck remained
the chancellor, until he was dismissed by William II.
William II did the following:
Built up a strong army & navy
Encouraged industry & commerce
Aggressively, encouraged imperialism and annexation
Stressed German nationalism
Austria-Hungary
Although Emperor Francis-Joseph tried to solve the problems
of the empire, they were too great for any one ruler to solve.
Problems faced by the empire included:
The great number of national minorities which were living in
the empire
Over-extension of the empire into areas, such as Italy
Failure to compete with the growing power of Prussia.
Dual
Monarchy
Revolts occurred in the Hungarian part of the empire between 1861 &
1867. Austria had focused on internal development, building
railroads and industry, as well as the centralization of the German
language. These policies alientated the Slavic and Magyar minorities.
1867: Ausgleich:
Created a Dual Monarchy (Austro-Hungarian empire)
Made the Hungarians (Magyars) dominant over other nationalities in
their region
Hungarians recognized the emperor and accepted common policies for
finances & foreign policy.
Hungary could make its own local laws.
Austria faced many revolts between 1860 & 1914
Second Industrial Revolution
It began in 1850
Henry Ford introduced a new form of mass
production, the assembly line, which allowed for
greater production
Steel replace iron as the essential means in
construction, railways, and for military use.
Electricity is used to light cities, power street cars, and
provide energy
Telegraph, radio, and telephone are invented
The Balance of Power
New developments in industry shift the balance of
economic power worldwide.
Within Europe, Germany surpassed Britain by 1900 in
steel, iron, and chemical production.
European capital began to dominate the world.
Invested interests lay in Asia, Africa, and Latin America
influencing economic interests in these regions, if not
controlling them outright.
Imperialism
Imperialism is the building up of an empire by a
country.
Between 1763-1871 there had been a decline in
European colonial control with the loss of the
Americas and Europeans preoccupied by revolution.
Following the unification of Germany and Italy,
Europe began to turn to the outside world to prove
their “greatness”
“New Imperialism” occurred from 1870-1914 when
Africa and Asia were consumed by the European
powers.
Motives and Means
Motives for European imperialism can be divided into
three basic categories: economic, political, and cultural
Economic Motives: As nations industrialized, they
needed access to raw materials, particularly with the
more sophisticated industries of the Second Industrial
Revolution. Rubber, oil, bauxite, copper, diamonds- all
could be found in great supply in Asia, Africa, and
Latin America.
Problems of overproduction, nations looked to
colonies as markets for finished products and outlets
for investments of profits.
Political Motives
Imperialist powers coveted certain locations for their
strategic value. Eg.- Great Britain bought up shares in
the Suez Canal Company over Egypt in 1882 because
of the strategic value of the Suez Canal as a lifeline to
the British Empire
Italy pursued colonies primarily as a claim to status as
one of the great powers.
Nationalist fever drove public opinion. Many valueless
colonies were acquired simply to demonstrate the
power of one nation over another.
Colonies acted as an outlet for surplus population.
Cultural Motives
Missionaries arrived first in Africa. The famous David
Livingstone traveled to Africa as a medical missionary
and was followed by British middle-class who believed
it was their duty to civilize the supposedly inferior
races.
This attitude finds expression in Rudyard Kipling’s
famous poem “The White Man’s Burden,” which
states it is the “duty” of the European to “civilize”
others.
Social Darwinism- the belief that war elevated the
nation by establishing the proper hierarchy among the
victors and the defeated
The Means
Europe to control, directly or indirectly, almost two-thirds of
the world’s population by 1914
European control arose directly from the technological
advances of the Second Industrial Revolution. Steam power,
telegraphs, medical advances (e.g., the discovery of guanine
to treat malaria), and railroads allowed for global trade and
communication as well as penetration of the interior of
Africa and Asia.
With the industrialization of war, Europeans gained an
overwhelming military superiority
Geography
Imperialist nations included: Britain, France,
Germany, Italy, Belgium, Japan, and the US.
Exploited areas included the Near East, Africa, & the
Far East.
Near East: Previously dominated by Turkey & Persia,
imperialist rivalries in this area (Balkans, etc.) were a
catalyst in the outbreak of WWI and the Crimean War.
Geography, continued
Africa: Rivalries here were very pronounced.
Early 19th century: the interior was basically unknown.
Pre 1850: France had claimed Algeria, and the Cape Colony was
occupied.
Post 1850: Stories from missionaries and explorers, such as Stanley
and Livingstone, stimulated interest in the wealth of the region and
led to settlement and more exploration.
1884-1885 Bismarck called the Berlin Conference. At that time, they
created a list of rules upon which a nation could be claimed in
Africa. This included having troops, a government agency, etc. This
was to avoid warfare between Europeans in Africa, but let to the
“Scramble for Africa” as European nations raced to claim there
territory
By the end of the century, practically all of Africa was settled.
Independent Nations in Africa
Only two independent nations remained in Africa at
the turn of the century.
Liberia: a small republic founded by American antislavery groups for emancipated slaves
Ethiopia (Abbysinia): defeated the Italians at the battle
of Adowa in 1896. This Italian defeat was a great
humiliation and was later avenged by Mussolini.
The Far East
The following things happened in the far east:
French controlled Indo-china, which today makes the
countries of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia
Britain consolidated its control over India
China was penetrated but not partitioned by imperialist
forces who set up “spheres of influence.”
The British Empire
Egypt: The British gained control the Suez canal
By 1900, Britain controlled 1/3 of Africa’s land
area and over 1/2 of the African population.
Britain also controlled many islands in the
Caribbean and had some colonies in Latin
America.
One of Britain’s most important colonies was
India.
Critics and Consequences
Though many Europeans saw great glory in
imperialism, some condemned it. In his Imperialism,
the Highest Stage of World Capitalism (1916), Lenin
contributed to Marxist theory by claiming that the
phenomenon of imperialism indicated the crisis
inherent in capitalism .
The scramble for territories eventually led to World
War I, since there were no lands left to colonize they
could only be taken from another nation
Consequences
Decolonization and dependency-Europe’s hold on it colonies
weakened after World War I and was severed after World War II.
Today, no European nation possesses a colonial empire, yet issues of
colonial dependence and resentment toward former European (and
American) dominance show up in terrorism, tribal conflicts, and
persistent economic underdevelopment.
We will discuss the reasons for decolonization in our next review
session.
La Belle Epoque
By 1914 Europe had reached its peak of power and
influence on the world.
This was considered Europe’s “Golden Age”
Optimists proclaimed the coming utopia where
remaining problems would be solved by the application
of the scientific method, using industry and politics
MASS SOCIETY- DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
•
Industrialization and improved public health and
medicine supported a rapidly expanding European
population from 1850-1914. During the period,
Europe’s population soared by 75%.
Mass Society-Demographic
Trends
Much of the increase was fueled by a drop in the death
rate, not a rise in the birth rate.
Europe began to adopt the modern population trend
of smaller family sizes with an increasing life
expectancy.
The rising population, more people congregated in
industrial cities.
This new urban context formed the breeding ground
for a culture of mass leisure and mass politics.
Mass Society: Medicine
Central to this breakthrough was the discovery of
bacteria and the germ theory of disease. Louis Pasteur
demonstrated how microorganism caused disease and
devised a method for killing them in liquids, called
pasteurization. Pasteur advanced the field of
vaccination, developing a rabies vaccine.
Hospitals improved with cleaner facilities.
Joseph Lister developed its first antiseptic treatment for
wounds and for use by physicians before surgery.
Medicine and Urban Areas
Governments recognized the importance of public
health in an urban setting, wishing to avoid infectious
disease outbreaks and potential unrest among the
working classes.
The British government, for example, tracked the
spread of disease, established public health boards,
sponsored vaccinations, and introduced modern
sewage and sanitation.
Urban Reform & Mass Leisure
•
By 1870 most governments began to address problems
such as pollution, working and living conditions, and
transportation.
•
An increase in leisure time occurred as workers began
to improve their working conditions and have shorter
hours. Reformers called for activities for them to do,
instead of crime, drinking, etc.
•
Cities created dance halls, parks, amusement parks,
and sports teams.
•
Rules for organized sports occurred during this time in
soccer, tennis, cricket, etc.
Education and Literacy
Literacy rates increase from 1850-1914 as governments
viewed state education as essential to their national
interests. Educated citizens could better handle the
demands of an industrial economy.
State schools began to open up to all classes of society,
in England and Germany
Family and Childhood
Queen Victoria became the domestic model, this Victorian
ideal reflected distinct gender roles for men and women.
Males were to dominate business, war, and politics.
Women were to manage the home as moral guardians for
their family.
With the decline in birth rates families invested more in the
upbringing of their children. The Enlightenment ideas that
childhood was a distinct period of development (Rousseau)
seeped slowly down to all classes. Toys, books, and clothing
started to be created just for children.
Modern Ideas
In philosophy and science, modern thinkers helped
fulfill the Enlightenment project of using reason to
discover laws.
However, many Enlightenment notions were called
into question by emerging trends of irrationality,
subjectivity, randomness, and struggle.
Newtonian physics had ruled the world of science for
200 years. They offered an appealing version of the
world like a “clock” where the cosmos was orderly and
predictable. This would soon be changed.
The Theory of Evolution
In his works, The Origin of the Species (1859) and The
Descent of Man (1871), Darwin held that the existing
animals and plants (including man) have evolved during
millions of years from simpler forms of life.
He claimed that life was a constant struggle for existence,
with only the strongest, most adaptable species surviving.
He called this process Natural Selection or the Survival of the
Fittest.
Effects of Darwinism
Darwin’s ideas were met with a storm of protest, especially from
religious circles.
Social Darwinism: other people, such as Herbert Spencer, tried to
apply Darwin’s evolutionary ideas to man and society.
Spencer stated that only the strongest, most fit, humans should survive
and thus, he attacked social welfare measures, such as shielding the
poorer (and inferior) people from starvation, etc.
Public aid was seen as only weakening the gene pool and causing
suffering in the long run.
This justified the attitudes of many industrialists.
Other Effects of Darwinism
Eugenics: (selective breeding of humans) began to develop
and influence public policies regarding the mentally insane,
etc.
Elitism: some Social Darwinists saw superior people in all
races & nationalities and urged the to band together so as to
prevent their being submerged by the ignorant and inferior
masses.
Extreme racial elitism later applied by the Nazi party during the
Holocaust.
Scientific Developments in
19th Century
Atomic Developments included:
1905: Albert Einstein advanced the theory of relativity which
modified Newton’s laws. He argued that absolute time and
space do not exist, but rather are relative to the observer and his
or her state of motion.
Marie & Pierre Curie discovered that atoms emitted radioactive
energy before they disintegrated.
These discoveries did not support Newton’s ideas that the world
was perfectly predictable and organized.
Freudian Psychology and the
Irrational
Enlightenment philosophers glorified human reason.
Sigmund Freud developed his theory and practice of
psychoanalysis. He stated that unpleasant or painful
memories might be buried in the human subconscious.
These fears could be unlocked with treatment.
Freud's work showed that human action often resulted
from factors other than choice.
Philosophy and the Irrational
Philosophy had long held up the idea of the rational,
but in the late 19th c. the most influential philosophers
showed the power of the irrational
German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche recognized
that human nature compromise human instincts and
human nature. With his statement that “God is dead”
Nietzsche believed that Christianity twisted human
nature by teaching people to suppress their natural
tendencies towards domination and self-assertion.
Morality, was the PERSONAL common conception of
good and evil. This ideas was popular with Hitler.
Religion: The Challenge of
Modernism
Modern ideas produced a challenge to the church
Scholars attempted to update their religions beliefs to
reflect the modern techniques of understanding
Pope Leo XIII attempted to tone down anti-modern
attacks. In his Rerum Novarum (“on modern things”)
Leo suggested that much of socialism reflected
Christian teachings, but he rejected Marxism as
antireligious.
The Catholic church refrained from issuing any
condemnations of Darwin’s teachings.