
The most critical initial question in Pediatrics
is whether or not the patient is actually ill.
Observation of the patient prior to the actual
exam can be tremendously helpful in making
this determination.

Exam should start with the organ systems
requiring the greatest amount of
cooperation.

The cardiovascular and pulmonary exam is
the least disturbing. The head and neck exam
tend to be the most disturbing to the patient
and should be more successfully
accomplished in the parent’s lap than on a
cold exam table.


EYES:
A bluish discoloration of the lower
orbitopalpebral groove is associated with
allergic disorders (“allergic shiners”); Dennie’s
sign is a prominent fold in the skin seen in
patients with environmental allergies. The
eyelids may reveal ptosis, entropion, or
ectropion.

The palpebral and bulbar conjunctivae may
reveal pallor or injection. Focal
subconjunctival hemorrhages are commonly
seen in the newborn period. The pattern of
injection seen with Kawasaki disease is
typically peripheral, in contrast to the pattern
seen with iritis, which is commonly
perilimbal.

Cobblestoning of the palpebral conjunctiva is
seen in patients with severe environmental
allergies. Any discharge should be noted.
Nasolacrimal duct stenosis is the most
common nonpathologic cause of eye
discharge. The nasolacrimal duct may
become inflamed, causing dacryocystitis

A red light reflex should be obtained to look
for cataracts, retinoblastoma, retinal
detachment, or chorioretinitis. The iris
should be examined for a Brushfield spots (a
sign often associated with Trisomy 21), a
coloboma (a cleft sometimes associated with
other syndromes), or Lisch nodules (seen in
neurofibromatosis.
nasolacrimal canal duct stenosis

Once the child can cooperate (usually around
4 years), a fundoscopic exam should be
performed. Increased intracranial pressure is
manifest by decreased venous pulsations –
blurred disk is a later sign. The macula should
also be examined, as abnormalities can be
associated with certain neurodegenerative
disorders. Corneal clouding can be a sign of
glaucoma.

EARS
The size and any physical aberrations in the
shape of the external ear should be noted.
Darwin’s tubercles are common. The ears
should be set and rotated normally - an
abnormality may be an indication of certain
syndromes (including Trisomy 21).

There are published standards for external
ear length ( long external ear is associated
with certain syndromes, like Fragile X). Any
preauricular pits or skin tags (a remnant of
external ear development) should be noted.
The pinna may appear to be protruding in the
child with mastoditis. The pinna should be
manipulated to look for irritation of the skin
of the auditory canal, as may be seen with
otitis externa.

The otoscope speculum should be gently
inserted into the external auditory canal. The
skin in the external auditory canal should
resemble normal skin. The tympanic
membrane (TM) should be translucent with a
normal light reflex and visible landmarks,
especially the manubrium of the malleus.

Insufflation should be performed. Signs of
otitis media include injection of the TM, pus
behind the TM, bulging or retraction of the
TM, and poor mobility on insufflation. Some
fluid behind the TM is commonly seen for
weeks to months after episode of otitis
media.

NOSE:
The shape, size, and symmetry of the nose
should be noted. In an older child, the
presence of a septal deviation,
polyps,injected or boggy mucosa, rhinorrhea
or other discharge, and bleeding should be
recorded. Nasal polyps can be associated
with a variety of etiologies, including allergic
rhinitis, cystic fibrosis, and aspirin sensitivity.

Any nasal flaring should be noted in a child with
respiratory distress. Tenderness over the sinuses
should be noted in patients old enough to have
them.

The frontal sinuses do not start development
until the middle of childhood. They are not fully
pneumatized until adolescence. A horizontal
crease may be seen in the skin on the surface of
the nose; this signifies repetitive wiping of the
nose commonly seen in allergic rhinitis (the
“allergic salute”).

THROAT/MOUTH:
The mouth is usually examined after the ears,
since the infant is frequently already crying.
The parent can once again restrain the hands
or hold an older child facing the examiner
while the arms and head are held.

Older children (after the age of 3-4 years)
freqeuntly are compliant with this exam. The
color of the oropharynx should be noted.
Cobblestoning of the posterior pharyngeal
wall is a sign of chronic allergic disease. The
size of the tonsils and tonsilar pillars and any
discharge should be noted.
EXAMINATION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The soft plate and gingiva in newborns may •
have keratin pearls. (also known as Epstein’s
pearls). Any cleft palate should be noted. The
uvula may be bifid, possibly indicating a
submucous cleft. The number of position of
teeth should be noted, as delayed or
advanced dentition can be caused by some of
the same conditions affecting fontanel
closure.
EXAMINATION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
“Tongue tie” or a shortened •
frenulum, is very uncommon.
There should be no functional
deficits if the infant can protrude
the tongue beyond the gingival
margin.
EXAMINATION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Eruption cysts and mucoceles are not •
uncommon in the first 6 months. Any caries
should be noted. The teeth should be
examined for a malocclusion. Natal teeth may
be seen in the newborn period. A single
central maxillary incisor can be associated
with growth hormone deficiency. Maxillary
hyperplasia may be seen with various forms of
chronic anemia.
CLINICAL FEATURES
These asymptomatic lesions are located along the angle of the mandible if arising from the first
branchial cleft and the middle to lower third of the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid
in cases arising from the second branchial cleft. They may present after an upper respiratory
infection as a painful mass. These lesions tend to drain internally, but communication with the
epidermis can occur. Branchial cysts may become complicated by infection.

The quality of the patient’s voice should also
be noted. Abnormalities might include a ‘hot
potato voice’ seen in a retropharyngeal
abscess or hoarseness associated with vocal
cord paralysis. The arching of the palate
should be noted if abnormal (a high-arched
palate may be seen in certain syndromes like
Marfan syndrome).

Any grunting should be noted for patients in
respiratory distress. A large tongue may be
seen in certain syndromes (e.g., BeckwithWiedenmann). A geographic tongue is a
common finding. A smooth tongue may be
seen in vitamin B12 deficiency. The buccal
mucosa may have white reticular plaques
commonly seen with thrush.

NECK:
Any masses should be recorded, including
their position (anterior vs. lateral) and
consistency (firm vs. cystic vs. pulsating). The
differential diagnosis of cervical masses is
governed, in large part, by these findings.
Accurate diagnosis of neck masses is critical to minimize morbidity and mortality. However,
differentials vary greatly and can be challenging for the physician.
Neck masses are common presenting complaints, but differential diagnoses vary considerably
based on patient age and the location of the neck mass. Most neck masses in the pediatric
population have an infectious etiology, whereas an adult neck mass is considered to be a
malignancy until proven otherwise. Evaluation of a neck mass depends on the history and
physical examination; evaluation may also include observation, antibiotics, fine-needle
aspiration, open biopsy, neck dissection, or wide local excision.
Thyroglossal Cyst is an abnormal growth on the neck that looks like a lump. It is the most
common type of Nonodontogenic Cyst i.e. it is an oral cyst developing from epithelium which is
nested in bony or soft-tissue joints during embryonal development.
A Thyroglossal Cyst is also known as a Thyroglossal Duct Cyst or Thyroglossal Tract Cyst.

A large cyst in the midline of the Neck is
frequently a thyroglossal duct cyst. A tender
fluctuant lateral neck mass is frequently an
infected anterior cervical lymph noted
though a branchial cleft cyst needs to be
considered, as well. Cystic hygromas can
occur anywhere in the neck but they are
usually laterally located.

An enlarged parotid gland can be
differentiated from a cervical node by the fact
that the parotid gland is dissected in half by
the angle of the mandible while the latter is
found below the angle of the mandible.
Parotitis, though commonly associated with
mumps, is more commonly seen with other
common viral infections.

The size and nodularity (if any) of the thyroid
needs to be noted. A webbed neck may be a
sign of turner syndrome. The position of the
neck may be important in early infancy, as
torticollis has an extensive differential diagnosis.
Abnormal neck mobility may be sign of infection
(e.g. meningitis or peritonsillar abscess) or
trauma. Tracheal tugging or accessory muscle
use may be seen with respiratory distress. The
salivary glands are rarely enlarged in children.

CHEST:
The symmetry of the chest should be noted, as
should any subcostal/intercostal retractions.
Asymmetric expansion may be seen with a
pneumothorax or diaphragmatic paralysis.
Abnormal shapes (e.g., pectus excavatum or
pectus carinatum) should be noted. Barrelshaped chests are sometimes seen in patients
with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(e.g., chronic asthma or cystic fibrosis).

A rachitic rosary may be seen or palpated in
rickets. Widely-spaced nipples may be sign of
Turner syndrome. The pubertal development
of the breasts (Tanner staging) should be
noted in females. Any masses, tenderness, or
discharge should be described in detail.

Breast buds are commonly seen in neonates.
The integrity of the clavicles should be noted
in newborns. Males sometimes develop
unilateral or bilateral breast hypertrophy
during puberty.


CARDIOVASCULAR:
A bell or diaphragm of the appropriate size
should be used. Frequently, an adult
stethoscope can be used once the child is out
of the immediate newborn period.
The diaphragm should be applied firmly to
the chest while the bell should be applied
lightly.

CARDIOVASCULAR:
The PMI (point of maximal impulse) should be
noted with respect to location and intensity.
A right-sided PMI may be associated with
situs inversus (and further imaging of the
spleen may be indicated).

The difference between a grade III/VI murmur
and a Grad IV/VI murmur is palpable thrill felt
in Grade IV, radiation to the axillae, neck, or
back, and changes with psition. Sinus
arrythmia is commonly seen in children, as is
a physiologically split S1. Any rubs, clicks,
gallops should be noted.

A prominent S1 is heard with mitral stenosis;
a prominent S2 may be heard with pulmonary
hypertension. Innocent heart murmurs are
low grade, often heard as a vibratory/musical
sound at the apex or left sternal border
(Still’s), low grade systolic at the left sternal
border (pulmonary flow), or below either
clavicle and decreasing with neck movement
or supine position (venous hum).

LUNGS:
A bell or diaphragm of the appropriate size
should be used. Frequently, an adult
stethoscope can be used once the child is out
of the immediate newborn period. The clarity
of the breath sounds and the quality of air
movement should be noted.

Any wheezing, rhonchi, rales, or transmitted
upper airway sounds should be recorded. An
increased inspiratory: expiratory ratio is an
indication of small airways bronchospasm.
Since airway sounds are transmitted better
through a smaller chest, the exam can be
somewhat confusing at times. Fremitus,
whispered pectoriloquy, and percussion are
more useful in older children and adolescents
than in infants and younger children.
Pneumonia lingula
Pneumonia lingula
Atelecasis RML

SKIN:
Skin lesions should be described using
standard dermatologic nomenclature
including the size, type, color, and
distribution of the lesion, (e.g., 1 mm red
papules in the intertrigenous area of the
neck). Primary skin lesions include macules,
papules, plaques, nodules, wheals, vesicles,
cysts, and pustules.

Secondary changes include erosion, oozing,
crusting, scaling, atrophy, excoriation, and
fissuring. Lesions are arranged in the
following manners: discrete, linear, annular,
or grouped.

Skin turgor and general color should also be
noted. Jaundice in a newborn less than 24
hours old and greater than 2 weeks old
always needs to be assessed – the
possibilities of pathologic jaundice and biliary
atresia need to be ruled out respectively.

The regularity of the borders of neavi or café
au lait spots should be also be noted. The
examiner should always be aware of the
location of lesions attributed to trauma – the
location of these lesions can often aid in
determining whether a lesion was accidental.
Common findings include hemangiomas and
Mongolian spots. As infants usualy do not
stand, the skin in dependent areas should be
examined for edema.

IMPRESSION:
A diagnostic impression should be developed.
A problem list can be useful for beginners to
try to synthesize a patient’s findings into a
coherent diagnosis. One useful way to
synthesize this information is to first describe
the anatomy of each abnormality, then to
describe the pathologic process (e.g.,
neoplastic, inflammatory, infectious), finally
arriving at a coherent diagnosis.

The cycle of data collection, hypothesis
setting, hypothesis testing, and action is put
into place. The selection of a diagnostic
pivot, or unique finding, may assist in
narrowing down the differential diagnosis.

The rules of parsimony, chronology, and
plausibility should be remembered. Common
diagnostic errors, such as premature closure
(i.e., reaching a conclusion before there is
enough data to support it) should be
avoided. Common and catastrophic
diagnosis are the most important ones to
address.

PLAN:
A diagnostic and therapeutic plan should
address each diagnostic impression. Tests
should be ordered only if the result will alter the
plan. Pediatricians tend to be fairly conservative
in prescribing medication, especially for selflimited diseases, such as the common cold. One
useful way to delineate a plan is by systems
(e.g., cardiovascular, pulmonary, hematologic,
infectious, fluid/electrolytes/nutrition, etc.).
-----END----PROF. ABDULRAHMAN ALFRAYH