TO WHAT EXTENT CAN TEACHERS MAKE A DIFFERENCE THROUGH
PEDAGOGIC PRACTICE TO ENHANCE SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING?
A STUDY OF MIXED NATIONALITY STUDENTS IN A UK UNIVERSITY
Name: Nicola Dawson
Organisational Affiliation: Coventry University – Lecturer in HRM
Email: ab6544@coventry.ac.uk
Stream 8: Scholarly Practitioner Research – Teaching and Learning
Submission Type: Working Paper
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Abstract
Purpose
This paper aims to establish to what extent can teachers make a difference through pedagogic
practice to enhance self-directed learning with HRD students in a British Post 1992
university.
Design/methodology
Informal ‘insider’ action research was conducted in autumn 2014 with a small cohort of
students using semi-structured discussions and a review of reflective reports, at three stages
during one teaching semester.
Findings
Certain practices were more effective in enhancing SDL in all students – the establishment of
rapport and setting of expectations in small groups at the outset; the use of peer group
working to support feedback; experiential learning methods and reflective practice in class
and the synchronous use of VLE resources and provision of additional reading resources.
Research limitations/implications
As ‘insider’ action research, the findings have been interpreted within the values and beliefs
espoused by the author in their efforts to develop their own professional practice. Similarly,
the small cohort size might make any conclusions only appropriate to the cohort studied.
Practical implications
In establishing common factors that enhance SDL skills, teachers can develop their
professional pedagogic practice to improve student engagement in learning. Further, by
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understanding cultural differences in this context, one can differentiate practices to mixed
nationality groups.
Social implications
In understanding how teaching practice can enhance the development of SDL, educators can
help develop key skills to aid students in their preparations for the world of work.
Originality/value
This research offers an insight into how post graduate students of HRD within a British
university can be appropriately supported through particular acts of teaching practice, to
enhance their capacity to self-direct, key to both employability and learner engagement.
Until now, recent studies into SDL have focussed typically on medical education elsewhere
in the world.
Keywords 3-6
Self-directed learning; pedagogy; learner motivation; higher education; teaching innovation;
learner engagement
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Introduction
This study examines acts of teaching practice to establish whether they aid students’
engagement in self-directed learning (SDL). This is based on preliminary research undertaken
with mixed nationality, post-graduate human resource development (PG HRD) students in a
British university.
The capabilities required of today’s graduates have changed to address the need for rising
skill levels in an evolving global economy and in line with the growth of knowledge societies
(Altbach and Knight, 2007). More than ever before, employees need to be capable and
motivated, critical thinkers and self-directed learners (Joseph and Joseph, 1997; Fallows and
Steven, 2000; Ellinger, 2004). These capabilities are significantly related to each another and
can be fostered in higher education (Kreber, 2006). Knowles (1975) suggested that selfdirected learners retain and make use of what they’ve learnt better and for longer.
Developing these capabilities as part of educational programmes is therefore fundamental for
today’s students of HRD. In particular, to develop both their critical appreciation of the
subject field and to develop their awareness of and responsibility to challenge what others
take for granted in organisations (Burrell, 1991), as they prepare for employment.
Development of a critical approach, through the associated development of self-directed
learning therefore enables HRD students in engaging in search for “the truth” (Sambrook,
2006, p5), in questioning tradition, not least, in attempting to define HRD (Lee, 2001) and
exposing previously accepted assumptions to create a multi-faceted construct of what HRD is
(Sambrook, 2004).
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In order to create capable graduates, one must consider how best to involve students (Astin,
1999). Understanding students’ motivation is key to engaging learners, as cultural differences
exist. For home students, impetus is predominantly about professional progression, pursuing
a passion for a particular subject or self-fulfilment (Stickland, 1996). However for
international students, an M-level qualification represents credence, and significantly impacts
on any future employment potential in tight home labour markets. (Altbach and Knight,
2007). Whatever the learners’ key drivers are for graduate study, the case for developing
engaged learners with key employability skills cannot be debated (Gibbs, 2014).
Literature Review
Traditional definitions of self- directed learning (SDL) are exemplified by Knowles (1975,
p.18) as; “a process by which individuals take the initiative, with or without the assistance of
others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identify human and
material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies,
and evaluating learning outcomes.”
In the past twenty years however, opinions have shifted dramatically regarding the
significance of the learner and their contribution to the learning process; what the learner
does has become more important for the learning process than what the teacher contributes
(Prosser and Trigwell, 1998; Biggs, 1999; Trigwell and Shale, 2004). Alongside this, the
definition and our understanding of self-directed learning (SDL) have evolved too.
Traditional theories of SDL alike Knowles (1975) above, largely focussed on learners “taking
primary responsibility and control of their learning process” (Pilling-Cormick and Garrison,
2007.p14), particularly in terms of external task control – the external management of
learning activities (Garrison, 1997) and pedagogical aspects (Knowles, 1970 in Long, 2001).
Brookfield (1985; 1986) claimed the full form of SDL is when both external activities (task
control) and internal reflective dimensions are brought together (Candy, 1991). More recent
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models including Garrison’s (1997) three dimensional comprehensive model of selfmanagement, self-monitoring and motivation reflects current understanding, by incorporating
these internal cognitive concepts.
The learner, according to Garrison, takes responsibility and control to monitor and manage
learning activities. This he termed as self-management. This is comparable to PillingCormick’s SDLP model (1996, in Pilling-Cormick and Garrison, 2007) where individuals
determine their priorities and choose from available resources. The resources provided aid the
development of meanings and interpretations for the learner. Pilling-Cormick’s model
divides self-management further into three aspects; a) the control factor and b) the contextual
influences on the interaction between the teacher and student – involving both motivational
and management processes and c) being the interaction between the student and the teacher
(known as cognitive responsibility). The interaction between teacher and student is worthy of
additional note, as a key consideration for pedagogic practice is in determining how best to
engage students (QAA, 2013).
Student engagement however, is not the sole responsibility of the teacher (Kuh, 2009).
Methods that aid self-direction and self-regulation, such as self-directed learning, can
motivate learners through achievement of goals (Ames, 1992). As Garrison’s comprehensive
model (1997) identified, cognitive dimensions to self-direction were key in understanding
learner’s engagement in self-directed learning, both in self-monitoring and in establishing
their own motivations for study.
Self-monitoring, according to Garrison (1997) focusses on reasoning processes – he argues
the importance of the learner in understanding the task, in assessing the strategies available,
and in being aware of and having an ability to think critically about what they are learning.
Therefore, SDL requires a learner to be self-reflective and self-appraising. In support of this,
Garrison and Archer (2000) identified that a learner who has learnt to think critically and
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construct meaning, can plan and modify their thinking in accordance with their objective or
goal and to act in an autonomous way; a key skill required in organisational life (Kuchinke
and Park, 2012) . Garrison saw motivation as essential for triggering interest and sustaining
focus, and having considerable influence on cognitive activities. Clearly, learning as an
ongoing process requires sustained effort and to achieve this, the learner needs to have
positive perceptions of their ability or self-efficacy to maintain their volition or persistence in
reaching their learning goals (Corno, 1993).
Accepting that self-directed learning can offer learners opportunities for engagement and key
employability skills (Ames, 1992; Joseph and Joseph, 1997; Fallows and Steven, 2000;
Ellinger, 2004), then it is significant to explore how the teachers can foster SDL through their
pedagogic practice.
Murad et al’s (2010) research, employing Knowle’s (1975) three components of SDL –
teachers as facilitators, learners involved in selecting resources and in self-assessing learning
outcomes, reviewed the effectiveness of SDL in the training of health professionals. Whilst
this study utilised a traditional definition, it identified that by involving learners in the
selection of learning resources that best fit their personal learning styles, as well as the
learning objective, made SDL more effective than traditional teaching. Additionally, Mahler
et al’s (2011) study recognised the role of teachers in supporting and facilitating the selection
of appropriate learning resources and strategies with medical students required to self-direct
as part of their programme of study. As a final point, Lefroy et al’s (2011) study recognised
that in a group setting, choice and control were key, as was self-esteem and self-awareness –
they identified how individuals in the groups gauged their own capabilities, but also by
observing their peers, noting therefore the significance of the group as part of the process
(Bandura, 1997). Each of the factors identified in these three studies conducted US or UK
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medical schools, emphasises how the teacher can orchestrate SDL in their planning and
delivery of learning interventions.
Whilst considering how a teacher might enable self-directed learning through task control
(Garrison, 1997), it is important to recognise how the individual characteristics of the learner
and learner group can impact upon this process, as methods to foster lifelong self-directed
learning continue to be advocated globally (Gwee, 2008). Indeed, Brockett and Hiemstra
(1991) identified the need for further investigation into how cross-cultural factors influenced
SDL. Hofstede’s (1984) seminal work into cultural dimensions identified differences in
national cultures which in part, can be attributed to hierarchical relationships seen in
education, between teacher and student. Furthermore, Deveney (2005) evaluated in Thai
schools how learner passivity may be demonstration of respect, rather than intentional noncontribution. She reported how prevailing culture suppressed initiative, self-responsibility
and individual maturation, all significant characteristics required for self-directed learning to
succeed. In addition, Frambach et al’s (2012) comparative study focussed on the crosscultural applicability of student-centred methods to foster lifelong self-directed learning.
They investigated how student’s cultural backgrounds impacted on SDL and how this impact
affected students. They identified that uncertainty in terms of approaching a self-directed
task (self-management, Garrison, 1997) and tradition, based on their previous teacher-centred
educational experience, posed a challenge to Middle Eastern students’ SDL, although they
adapted over time. Framback et al. acknowledged the challenge hierarchy posed to Asian
students, whereby the use of tutorial sessions and peer group working had created uncertainty
about “the truth” (p.743), due a dependency on ‘experts’ in their teachers to provide
authoritative statements rather than themselves or their peers as a source. Evidently, with the
growth in numbers of non-western students in UK HE institutions presently (UNESCO,
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2015), this presents a significant issue. Finally, achievement, in the pressure to pass
examinations had impacted upon both sets of non-Western students studied, by distracting
learners from their own intrinsic motivations to learn (self-motivation, Garrison, 1997) and
exploration of the wider topic area, to focussing their efforts on examination content. Each of
the four factors had been previously identified as more prominent in non-Western cultures.
(Hofstede, 2001; Leung et al, 2008).
It can be said therefore, that differences exist that might impact on the implementation of
self-directed learning, from both contextual and cultural perspectives. What is clear then, is
that students should be gradually exposed to SDL, with relatively strong guidance and
support from teachers in the initial stages (Mifflin et al, 2000).
Warring’s (2010) research into teachers facilitation of independent learning with Chinese
students in New Zealand reflects Garrison’s (1997) three components in her findings.
Warring used Hershey and Blanchard’s (1996) Situational Leadership model with her
business students, by employing initial high levels of task direction and low levels of
supportive behaviour moving to lower levels of direction, and higher levels of supportive
behaviour. She discovered whilst complete independence had not been achieved by the end of
the degree programme, the use of self-directed learning had led to improved confidence
levels, increased belief in their own responsibility for learning, but resulted in lower levels of
motivation in finding learning satisfying and wanting to study topics in depth. Warring’s
(2010) conclusions provide further support for Garrison’s (1997) motivation dimension, and
the need for university students to develop volition or persistence in undertaking educational
programmes of study, whatever their culture or previous experience.
Given the cultural differences identified and their potential impact on SDL effectiveness,
conducting a UK based university study of mixed nationality PG HRD students was deemed
to be valuable. As a university lecturer, conducting a piece of action-oriented ‘insider’
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research on SDL – would serve both scholarly activity and teaching practice, with a clear
overlap into HRD. By utilising Garrison’s (1997) three dimensional approach as the
foundation for investigation, both teacher and student factors would be incorporated to
provide a comprehensive model as the basis for analysis.
Research Question
To what extent can teachers make a difference through their pedagogic practice to aid the
development of self-directed learning in PG HRD students?
Methodology
Informal action research (Argyris, Putnam and Smith, 1985) took place during autumn 2014
with a cohort of five PG mixed part time and full time students of varied nationalities,
studying a PG HRD module.
Respondent One
UK British nationality; female; part-time; first time study
Respondent Two
UK British nationality; female; part-time; first time study
Respondent Three
Chinese nationality; female; full-time; resitting the module
Respondent Four
Indian nationality; male; part-time; first time study
Respondent Five
UK British nationality; female; full-time; first time study
The purpose of the research was to evaluate my own pedagogic practice, specifically;

The provision of a wider range of resources including use of a virtual learning
environment,

The facilitated discussion in class time of individual reflections from reading

The provision of feedback and tutorial support.
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It was hoped that these acts of teaching aided the development of self-directed learning. In
understanding their potential impact better, it was anticipated that implications for other
cohorts and wider teaching practices would be gleaned (Eden and Huxham, 1996).
By using group-based semi-structured discussions as the research method, I could explore
and reflect upon my students’ perceptions of the learning experience (Winter, 1989) using
Garrison’s (1997) three-dimensional model as the basis for exploration.
Group discussions were held at three intervals during class time over the semester to;

Week 1 (T1) : Establish joint expectations and ground rules for partnership working
(Garrison’s motivation dimension)

Week 7 (T2) : Gauge students’ perceptions of my teaching practice to date –
specifically intended SDL activities, how these activities had supported/hindered their
learning process so far and students’ views whether their own SDL skills were
developing (self-management dimension)

Week 11 (T3): Gather learner’s reflections about their progress in developing selfdirected learning and whether or how they felt SDL had contributed to their overall
learning (self-monitoring dimension).
By discussing both my teaching intervention (external task control - self-management
dimension) and their own internal cognition and motivational factors (self-management and
self-monitoring dimensions) during the period of study with learners, Garrison’s (1997)
model could be directly applied. Use of this comprehensive model would thus develop a
well-rounded analysis of SDL in this context.
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Analysis
In examining my own emphasis in preparation to aid self-directed learning, most additional
effort went into managing the external task (Garrison, 1997) through five distinct acts of
teaching;
1) Developing additional structured research activities online using the virtual learning
environment (VLE) with the intention to give learners if needed, a focal point to help
structure and guide their self-study time.
2) Providing facilitative guidance to learners in how to utilise these additional resources
during class time – in line with Mahler et al (2011)
3) Sourcing a broader range of reading and resources provided online through the VLE
as a resource bank, with the intention to give learners options in line with their learning
styles – consistent with Murad et al (2010)
4) Providing experiential learning activities and opportunities to learn by doing (Kolb,
1984)
5) The provision of one to one tutorials outside of class time.
T1 - At our initial session together, expectations of each other were discussed. Students
requested feedback through tutorial support for their draft coursework. They requested an
open and honest learning environment, and teaching which was practical (experiential –
Kolb, 1984), wrapped around organisational experience (Knowles, 1975), which to them
would provide ‘added-value’. We agreed our ‘rules of engagement’ in working in this
facilitative way and wrote them down for future reference (Rogers, 1969).
T2 - At the midpoint of their studies, all students felt there had been some progress in the
development of their own skills in self-direction, but had faced challenges in engaging with
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the online resources, due to the lack of synchronous online interaction. They also noted
reduced motivation as a result of other calls on their time, turning their focus to coursework
submissions for other modules. In exploring their reduced motivation to self-direct,
respondent 1 commented that they ‘get more out of face to face learning’ and respondent 2
stated that they ‘need to make more of an effort to read more articles’. However, a
respondent 3 reported that the online activities had helped her ‘find more information and
references’ and that this had given her “more time to undertake study”. Given her need to
translate articles for better comprehension, she felt this out of class structured activity had
aided her understanding of key theories presented in class time. However she also
commented on her own reduced level of motivation saying ‘I don’t have enough patience to
read all the article’. Her response here aligned with Warring’s (2010) study where Chinese
students benefitted from a higher level of task direction at the outset of their learning.
T3 - In the final week of study, all students felt the provision of optional wider reading
activities following class input had aided their self-direction. Respondent 1 felt that
discussions around ideas taken from their reading in later classes, had enabled her to ‘think
more about the topic and to debate current work practices with her work colleagues’. She
described this action as increasing her ‘desire to read, as it was more purposive’ and how the
learning had become more ‘relevant once we’ve had the chance to see how it fits’. It was
evident therefore that her self-motivation dimension (Garrison, 1997) had developed, as she
saw her ability to discuss matters learnt with work colleagues as motivational and that this
had driven her persistence to continue (Corno, 1993). It also identified that by using teaching
methods that made the learning come to life and relevant to her work role, that she had
bought-in to the subject of study – a key principle of adult learning (Knowles, 1984). As the
class size had been small, providing flexible lesson structure to facilitate such discussion was
relatively straightforward. The degree of additional reading that had been undertaken by
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students did differ, as respondent 2 commented ‘I would have loved to done the reading, but
life gets in the way’. This comment reflects the individual nature of self-management,
motivation (Pilling-Cormick and Garrison, 2007) and volition (Corno, 1993) within a given
group studying together and how teachers through their pedagogy can thus only ameliorate in
certain ways to aid this (Midgley, 2014)
When asked what else had enabled self-directed learning, all students agreed that the ‘human
interactions’ and tutorial meetings had offered reassurance, consistent with Pilling-Cormick’s
contextual influences (1997). Each learner had participated in a one to one tutorial and
utilised the time with their tutor to focus on their assessment. When probed, students
identified that having had the time to get to know the people in the group had been key to
their motivation to participate in the learning process; the power of the group was highlighted
as a motivating factor (Bandura, 1977; Pilling-Cormick, 1997). Respondent 1 reflected that
she had taken part in the self-directed learning activities because if she hadn’t she would have
‘felt I’d let the group down’. This clearly linked with her own drive to persist in SDL activity
(Corno, 1993; Garrison, 1997) and the motivation she felt from perceived peer pressure
(Brophy, 2004).
The learner went on to explain how the network of peer support had developed over time,
whilst the group studied together; this factor is supported by Kek and Huijser’s (2011)
Malaysian study of medical students, who recognised the significance of a sense of belonging
and peer support in delivering SDL outcomes. All students agreed the relationship with the
tutor as key, ‘[there is] something about hearing your voice that makes you buy-in’ a UK
student said. ‘….because we’ve bought into you’, respondent 1 commented. Clearly,
Cormick-Pilling’s (1997) contextual factors in exploring the relationship between learner and
teacher were evident in this comment. The desire for relatedness, as an innate need, was
however not expected. (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Ali and El Sebai’s (2010) study of female
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medical students in Saudi Arabia also highlighted the significance of the tutorial process in
driving a sense of relatedness formed between tutor and membership of a group in selfdirected activity. This internal motivation for relatedness, could explain the lack of
engagement witnessed in the forum established for this cohort. Her view reinforced how the
electronic teaching resources such as student discussion forums provided via the VLE,
needed to be synchronous where possible to enable the group to interact and learn together
(Bandura, 1977).
In exploring this viewpoint, students described and all agreed that how through studying
learning theory as part of the curriculum, I as their tutor had role modelled the behaviours
they expected from humanistic approach to learning (Rogers, 1969). One student noted, ‘as
an advocate of SDL and by being passionate in [my] communications about HRD in general’
– this had been achieved by facilitating learning and through providing options for learning both core components of SDL (Knowles, 1975). Students felt this had driven their motivation
to adopt self-directed learning for themselves and to continue to participate.
As part of the formal learning assessment, all students were encouraged to keep a weekly
reflective log of their experiences studying HRD in order to present a summative written
reflection of their personal and professional learning. Each student reflected upon
interventions of their choice. Whilst this was not intended to be part of the data gathered for
this research, upon reading the reflections, it became evident that narrative written following
the completion of the taught programme had further evidenced students’ experiences of selfdirected learning.
In the first report, respondent 4 reflected upon writing his first assignment. ‘[I] felt I was
getting confused’ he stated. However following his tutorial, ‘I felt as if something had clicked
in my head – I was able to see how it had all linked together’. Clearly the use of experiential
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learning methods and discovery learning techniques (Bruner, 1957; Kolb, 1984) had aided his
cognition and the opportunity to discuss his views and opinions had supported this (Knowles,
1984). In evaluating the ways he felt he could have further developed, he stated, ‘I felt I could
have benefitted from doing more reading/research’ and ‘I would also ask for another meeting
with my lecturer for some more verbal feedback’. It is evident that upon reflection, the
student saw the benefit of the tutorial meetings in helping his cognition of learning – a key
feature of self-monitoring (Garrison, 1997).
Secondly, respondent 2 observed in deliberating over verbal feedback received following a
practical activity; ‘I asked for peer feedback – I was particularly encouraged by this’. This
peer feedback it can be argued, helped her cultivate self-esteem, exemplifying how this can
serve to drive ongoing motivation. (Lefroy et al ,2011). The same student then focussed her
considerations on the tutor/student relationship (Pilling-Cormick, 1997). She revealed, ‘I
have easy, direct access to the tutor …she sat at the table with us…this has made the module
more enjoyable… it has felt personal…the tutors style was approachable…there was
nowhere to hide in class and I felt that I worked really hard in every session - it felt like a
real step up to PG study’. This insightful commentary again reflected the need for relatedness
(Deci and Ryan, 2000) as core to motivation of learners. In contrast however, respondent 1
did note that ‘the tutor expected a lot of us especially through SD learning and although a lot
of resources were made available online, there needed to be some motivation on my part to
actually use them, and this was not always the case’. Clearly, these comments highlight the
need for volition (Corno, 1993) in driving ongoing motivation in student behaviours, but also
that the provision of tutor-created resources is not necessarily motivating in its own right,
whereas the earlier student had felt she would let the side down if she hadn’t participated in
the online forum. This distinguishes the drive to undertake SDL motivated by the peer group
from completing SDL motivated by the Tutor (Bandura, 1977; Lefroy et al, 2011)
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Evidently, the student concerned felt she had the autonomy to select what activities and
resources she utilised; itself a characteristic of SDL (Knowles, 1975; 1984).
Of particular interest in reading the reflections provided, was how the UK students identified
the impact of cultural diversity within the group. Respondent 1 noted, ‘As the weeks have
gone on, [Chinese student’s] relationship with the group has changed and she has begun to
trust us and as a result, has begun to contribute’. This insight demonstrated how peer support
(Lefroy et al, 2011), and the gradual shift towards SDL by the tutor over time (Garrison,
1997) had impacted upon their perceptions of the Chinese student’s contribution levels in
class. This seemed to go against the prevailing culture of Asian students (Deveney, 2005;
Hofstede, 2010; Frambach, 2012) that had been originally witnessed, and implied this
particular learner was developing her SDL skills as a result. In fact, in her respondent 5’s
reflection, she commented, ‘as we had a small class; the learning environment is relaxed - as
a result, teacher pays us more attention and we have more chance to communicate (no
communication with others is a barrier to my learning) and teacher care about what we
learning’. This reflection highlighted for me that SDL techniques, combined with a
conducive peer group network in class time, could have significant potential for international
students who typically, might demonstrate passive behaviours in class and thus, low levels of
engagement. (Deveney, 2005; Hofstede, 2010; Warring, 2010)
She acknowledged her concerns about achievement; ‘I don’t want to fail the course again,
this has fuelled my self-directed learning at home’. Whilst concerns around achievement have
been highlighted to distract from SDL (Frambach et al. 2012), in this instance, respondent 5
felt, controversially, that it had increased her motivation. She noted that the use of learning
logs in preparation for her reflective assessment had aided her focus. Fundamental to her
experience, she noted, was the opportunity to work one to one with the tutor. “Personal
tutorial also can help me study effectively….. previously I feared communication with the
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teacher – the tutorial helped [me] understand the assignment and helped me to ask questions.
As a result my coursework was good beyond my expectation and it helped me engage in the
following lectures.” This deliberation again reinforced the importance of relatedness (Deci
and Ryan, 2000) as crucial to maintaining her motivation and self-monitoring (Garrison,
1997).
Conclusions
In analysing the common factors, three of the five acts of teaching had proven to be
beneficial in aiding SDL; the provision of tutorials out of class time, the use of experiential
learning methods in class and the provision of optional reading resources. As well as these
three intended practices, it was evident that the facilitation of peer-group working and the
development of relations with the tutor, resulting in a sense of relatedness or belonging, had
aided the learners in their self-directed learning. For both UK, Indian and Chinese students,
male and female, the ability to build a more personal working relationship with both the tutor
and the study group seemed to enable the cognition of what had been read, far more than any
VLE intervention had enabled. Finally, the use of methods to capture reflections of student’s
learning as they occurred had proven both insightful and critical, retrospectively.
In contrast however, there was a clear mismatch between tutor and learner perceptions with
two further acts of pedagogic practice. Firstly, in clarifying expectations at the
commencement of teaching this mixed group, it was noted that students did not ask for
additional activities to be provided to structure their self-directed study time. Typically, this
was not something students experienced in other parts of their course programme. This was
the first instance of a mismatch between my acts of teaching practice to aid development of
SDL and their perceived requirements for support in self-directed learning. More specifically,
the UK and Indian students had not found these online research activities beneficial,
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especially in their asynchronous form. It is worthy of note that, in being presented with the
tasks set, the peer group relationship did encourage the participation evidenced online in
forums. Conversely, the Chinese student did feel the VLE resources had been useful in
providing wider sources of help. This links with Warring’s (2010) recognition of a need for
higher levels of task direction and the provision therefore, of facilitative guidance in how to
use the resources as an intended act.
Student feedback indicated that the initial ground rules discussion had not enabled the powerdistance hierarchy to be broken down adequately with the Chinese student (Hofstede et al,
2010). This clearly needed time to develop. What became evident was the need for a
personalised relationship between student and tutor to enable clear understanding of their
motivations and goals and thus, for a true facilitative approach to be offered (Rogers, 1969).
Finally, with reference to Garrison’s comprehensive model (1997), it is posited that there are
differences in the way SDL should be facilitated between different groups of learners. These
can be summarised as:
1) In setting expectations, this should be done as much as possible in small groups or
individually to build rapport (relatedness) between tutor and student.
2) Where possible, a peer network in small groups should be facilitated to develop a
sense of belonging and to enable feedback and support amongst learners themselves.
3) In using VLE resources, tutors should create synchronous online activities where face
to face intervention does not permit, and continue to provide additional resources to
direct and support all learners in their knowledge and understanding.
4) The use of reflective logs by all enabled self- management and self-monitoring skills.
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5) Experiential learning and reflective discussion in class time assists self-monitoring
and drives motivation by volition, by providing relevance to the workplace and the
opportunity to connect theory to practice (Knowles, 1975; 1984; Kolb, 1984).
This research offers an insight into how post graduate students of HRD within a British
university can be appropriately supported through particular acts of teaching practice, to
enhance their capacity to self-direct. Self-directed learning has been identified as key to both
employability and learner engagement. Recent studies into SDL have focussed typically on
medical education elsewhere in the world. Clearly, the development of SDL has an additional
benefit to students of HRD in developing their critical perspectives and in challenging current
practices as they enter the world of employment (Sambrook, 2006).
Limitations
Of course, it may be that my role as an ‘insider’ action researcher impacted upon the learners
behaviours, in their awareness of my research aims and/or due to my prevailing interest in
developing my own practice - as Zeni (1998, p.9) states “action research is never detached”.
As Carr and Kemis (1986) identified, if action research is about the improvement of practice,
then by nature, this type of research can only be contingent upon the practitioners’ intentions,
values and beliefs and the situation in which those elements are given form. Therefore, it
would be inappropriate to form generalisations that were universally generalizable.
Further Research
Due to the small sample size involved in this action research, it is suggested however, that a
repeat study with a larger group of learners should be conducted to allow for additional
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findings to be reported. This should include a range of nationalities and genders to further
explore cultural and gender differences. Due consideration to how the tutorial process be
facilitated with a larger cohort is necessary; potentially managed in small groups. The
facilitation of the ground rules discussion would also be held in small groups to enable more
contact with individuals from the outset. External task management would be replicated.
Research output from this broader study would aim to develop a teacher’s toolkit to aid
students in developing their self-directed learning abilities.
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