You need one ½ sheet of paper.
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1. When referring to those who first
settled what is identified as
Appalachia as Borderlanders, what
does this mean?
2. Approximately when (give a 50 yr.
span) did these Borderlanders arrive
in America?
3. What were the characteristics of
this migration?
4. What type of individuals were the
first to move into the Appalachian
Mtns.?
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5. How were the Borderlanders
suited to the Great Awakening in
America?
6. What is meant by describing
these Borderlanders, and then the
Appalachians, as possessing
cultural anxiety?
7. Who belongs to Appalachia
(portions of which states) according
to the current Appalachian Regional
Commission boundaries?
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The Borderlands
◦ A people with a unique history and
culture that eventually transplanted it
in the Appalachian Mountains
◦ They, and their ancestors, became the
periphery in America as well
◦ Get to this later
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Appalachia’s first settlers: over 14,000 years
ago
Ancestors of Iroquois and Cherokee migrated
here 12,000 BC
Cherokee most prominent in pre-colonial
Appalachia
◦ but not only: Shawnee, Yuchi, Carawba and many
others
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16th c: Spanish explorers in Florida told by
the Apalachee peoples that there was gold in
the mountains north. (truth??)
By 1562, “Appalachen” appeared on European
maps
De Soto’s journey took him as far as
Mountains in East TN
Iroquois began to expand their territory south
(VA, SC, NC)
◦ The clashes in Appalachia were multicultural and
multiethnic!
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Cherokee: humans were just another part of
nature, not superior to animals, trees, etc. As
a result, they didn’t believe in land ownership
European: humans on a mission from God to
conquer nature, interested in expanding
territory. Native societies viewed as primitive
and savage.
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First exploration into the S.
Appalachians were fur traders around
1650
Virginian Governors would
periodically commission explorers
into the mountains
Early exaggerations: Lions and tigers
Indians dominated and the fur trade
was abundant (many of the traders
coming out of Charleston)
Many of the traders were adopted into
the Native cultures and took Indian
wives
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1730: VA offered land grants in the
Shenandoah Valley
1750’s: settlers reached western NC and East
TN
To prevent white settlers from overrunning
Native lands, British gov’t issued
Proclamation of 1763: banned all settlement
west of the Appalachian Mtns.
◦ but largely ignored!
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The legendary long hunters came through
Cumberland Gap during the 1760’s (despite
the Proclamation!)
Despite some differences, mostly able to
coexist with the Indians.
"All you need for happiness is a good gun, a
good horse and a good wife."– Daniel Boone
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Early 1900s, Cecil Sharp
collected songs, ballads, etc.
from Appalachia and found that
the people “come from a part of
England or the Border Country
between Scotland and England
where civilization is least
developed.”
Even today the region is bare,
empty, with deep valleys
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Post 1715 – the migration to
America was dominated by small
independent farmers, or people
who sought land ownership
◦ Yeoman culture (small land owners)
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So many immigrants from the
Borderlands arrived in
Pennsylvania, “a swarm of people…
strangers to our laws and customs,
and even to our language.”
They looked different
◦ Tall, lean and weathered with a felt hat,
loose sackcloth shirts, close belted at
the waist and baggy trousers
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Total number
◦ 250,000 with 1/3 of them coming in the
four years prior to the American
Revolution
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It was a movement of families
◦ 61% of those from N. England came w/
families
◦ 73% from Border Scotland
◦ 91% from N. Ireland
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Fairly even ratio of males to females
(149/100)
Why did they come?
◦ Material betterment and a shot at land;
most were farmers back home
◦ How does this differ from many others in
New England who had come to America?
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They possessed significant
confidence and pride despite their
poverty.
They demanded respect despite
their rags.
The Borderlanders demanded the
same from the English authorities
What were they called?
◦ Ulster Irish, Northern Irish, Scotch
Irish, Scots Irish, Anglo Irish, Saxon
Irish
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1-2% were elite gentry (would become
important in American politics)
“statesman” were a small group of
independent yeoman
majority were farmers and farm laborers who
did not own land
a large minority were semiskilled craftsmen
(weavers) or traders
They were mostly poor, but not desperately
poor!
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Caudill’s book discusses the plight of the
indentured servants, who moved from NC and
SC up into KY
Many in Eastern KY came from the
Pennsylvania region, down through Northern
Carolina, then up into KY
◦ Ex: Daniel Boone
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The kings of Scotland and England
could not agree:
◦ From 1040-1745 all but three English
Monarchs suffered Scottish invasion or
invaded Scotland
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Endemic violence perpetuated
poverty
Land ownership not as important as
a horse and weapons
Blood relations were highly
important; families became clans;
loyalty to the clan, not the Crown
There was little trust in legal
institutions; settled own disputes
through violence
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The first U.S. census
identified these
Borderlanders as up to 90%
of the inhabitants of SW
Pennsylvania, Western
Maryland and Virginia, N.
and S. Carolina, and
Georgia and Tennessee
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Mostly Presbyterians and Anglican
with a strong tendency towards
New Light Christianity (Great
Awakening)
◦ A belief in free grace, field meetings,
prayer societies; a settled hostility
towards the established church
◦ A group in Scotland founded by
Richard Cameron was known for a
Bible in one hand and a weapon in the
other; sermons were overly militaristic
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Intensely resistant to change, suspicious of
“foreigners” (anyone not neighbor or kin!)
They disliked the great planters and the
abolitionists
Possessed cultural anxiety and insecurity
born of centuries of violence and uncertainty
Associated with the Regulator Movement
◦ Against wealthy, corrupt colonial officials (inner
circle of knowledgeable individuals)
◦ Post defeat there was an attempt to form an
independent Republic of Franklin and the Republic
of Watauga in Tennessee
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2 waves of immigrants into Appalachia:
◦ People seeking land ownership (and some religious
freedoms) that came into Pennsylvania, them
migrated south into VA and NC, and finally into KY
◦ People brought to America as indentured servants
to work plantations in NC and SC, who then got free
of masters and migrated north
◦ Most of these came from what area?
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ypk5mG5J
Dvk
Understand the “cultural anxiety” of these
people.
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Not called “frontiersman” at the time
“Backcountry” or “backsettlers”
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“We never let go of a belief once fixed in our
minds”
Clung tenaciously to their customs, culture
and characteristics
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The words of the American
backcountry or the same words
recorded in the language of the
Scottish lowland and highland
speech, as well as that of
Northern Ireland and the
Northern English border
Name some unique
“Appalachian”
expressions/words:
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Whar
Thar
Hard
Critter
Sartin
A-goin
Hit
He-it
Far
Be-it
Narrer
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Deef
Pizen
Nekkid
Fetch
Boosh
Wrassle
Chaney
Chaw
Poosh
Shet
Young-uns
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He come in
She done finished
They growed up
They is judged
You wasn’t there, was you
He done did it
She had a one
He don’t have none
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Fornenst
Skift
Fixin
Brickle
Swan
Hant
Hate
Nigh
Scawmy
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Lowp
Lettin’ on
Bumfuzzled
Scoot
Honey
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http://www.dailyyo
nder.com/mountain
talk/2010/07/13/2
837
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It’s an earthy dialect that didn’t
contain the taboos of Puritan
English
◦ Sexual processes and natural
functions were freely used in
figurative expressions
◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0
3iwAY4KlIU
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The log cabin
Simple, suitable to migrating
people, impermanent, and an
expression of insecurity on the
borders
Perfect for a scarce environment
Creates a strong sense of family
and a weak sense of individual
privacy – one great room
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One English soldier upon
seeing a borderlander’s home:
"husbandmen's houses ...
resemble our swine coates,
few or none of them have
more storeys than one, and
that very low and covered
usually with clods of earth, the
people and their habits are
suitable to the dwellings.”
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Size was similar on both sides of
the Atlantic, about 16 ft.
“any sort of rude enclosure,
commonly built of the cheapest
materials that came to hand: turf
and mud in Ireland, stone and dirt
in Scotland, logs and clay in
America....”
Logs were “daubed” with clay
◦ Communal event called a “clay daubin”
for a newly married couple
In the American backcountry this
was referred to as “wattle and funk”
Larger cabins were often referred to
as “dog-trot cabins”
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As late as 1939 there were
270,000 occupied log cabins in
the United States. Many were in
the southern highlands. In the
county of Halifax, Virginia, 42
percent of all houses were log
cabins as recently as World War
II
The mobile home preserves an
architectural attitude that was
carried to the backcountry
nearly three centuries ago—a
cabin on wheels!
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UxjCeDD
OJek
(show this later!)
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Derbfine - all kin within the span
of four generations. For many
centuries, the laws of North Britain
and Ireland had recognized the
derbfine as a unit which defined
the descent of property and power.
It not only connected one nuclear
family to another, but also joined
one generation to the next.
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Clan – a group of related families
who lived near to one another,
were conscious of a common
identity, carried the same
surname, claimed descent from
common ancestors, and banded
together when danger
threatened.
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Blood relations
Called each other cousin
25% married within the clan
highly effective adaptation to a world
of violence and chronic insecurity.
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“My grandfather and grandmother were
born in Scotland about the [year] 1670.
They were cousins and both of one
name. His name was John and hers was
Janet. They lived in their younger years
in or near Glasgow and in 1695 they
left Scotland and settled in Ireland in
the county of Down . . . where he lived
in good circumstances and in good
credit until the year 1734, [when] he
removed with his family to South
Carolina.”
(grandparents, 7 children, 17
grandchildren, uncles and cousins!)
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“We did not all come in one ship
nor at one time.”
was a classic example of serial
migration or stream migration
which was common in the
peopling of the backcountry. A
few clan members opened a path
for others, and were followed by a
steady stream of kin.
In North Carolina's Catawba
County, the first United States
Census of 1790 listed 300 nuclear
families named Alexander
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"so numerous were the tribe of
the Alexanders that they had
to be designated by their
office, their trade or their
middle name." The most
eminent Alexander was called
"Governor Nat" to distinguish
him from "Red Head Nat" and
"Fuller Nat." This became a
common custom throughout
the southern highlands”
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among the distinctive features
of clan organization was the
emphasis on collateral (equal
importance) rather than lineal
descent
This fit in well with the mobility
of the countryside, which
prevented the formation of
'lineal families' in which sons
succeeded to their fathers'
lands.
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“All the children in the district are
related by blood in one degree or
another. Our roll-call includes Sally
Mary and Cripple John's Mary and
Tan's Mary, all bearing the same
surname; and there is, besides, Aunt
Rose Mary and Mary-Jo, living yon side
the creek. There are different branches
of the Rogers family Clay and Frank,
Red Jim and Lyin' Jim and Singin' Jim
and Black Jim Rogers in this district,
their kin intermarried until no man
could write their pedigree or ascertain
the exact relation of their offspring to
each other.”
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This loyalty to kin and clan was a way of
dealing with the violent and disordered world
from where they came.
It hung on once here—and thus the “family
feud” so associated with this region.
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Bride’s family vs. the groom’s
Passing around the “Black Betty”
". ...marriages are early and
generally prolific. In one district,
containing upwards of 17,000
white inhabitants, there is not
one woman at the age of
twenty-five who is neither wife
or widow."
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Clear-cut ideas of masculine and
feminine
Even though both engaged in the
heaviest labor, it’s a patriarchic
society where men are the warriors
and women are the workers
Gravestones for wives with the
husband’s name at the top
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When a culture exists for many
generations in conditions of
chronic insecurity, it develops an
ethic that exalts war above work,
force above reason, and men
above women.
Hostile environment plus
evangelical Christianity
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More open than other culturesboth in talk and behavior
Scantily clad
Single room homes, so there was
little privacy
Children run around naked
High rates of pre-nuptial
pregnancy
◦ 1767- 94% of brides were pregnant
◦ Also the youngest average age of
brides
 Why?
 Scarcity
of clergy
 Long night walks
home
 Openness since
birth
 Promiscuous dress
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Always been a stereotype
However, no more than the rest
of America (or the world) initially
But there is a particularly strong
oral tradition
◦ Education has always been tied to
the following
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Money
Availability/accessibility
Practicality of attendance
Future prospects
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Brief quiz to see if you’ve been paying
attention
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Early 19th c: white children only went to
school for about 2 yrs
Rates of schooling lower here than any other
part of US from 19th-late 20th c
Root of this? Formal education very limited in
those border areas
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Since its inception in 2001, the
Appalachian Education Initiative has
been dedicated to ensuring that quality
arts education should be a central part
of the education of every public school
student in West Virginia.
AEI’s mission is to promote students’
personal development, academic
performance and 21st century
workforce preparation by ensuring that
educators, parents, business and
community leaders and others
understand the value of arts education
and support its place from
Kindergarten through 12th grade
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The Appalachian Leadership and Education
Foundation (ALEF), a non-profit
organization funded by foundations and
companies, supports and enables young
men and women from Appalachia to pursue
higher education though scholarship and
leadership curriculum. The program
includes an emphasis toward the
preparation required to be the leaders of
the next decade. The concept of operations
for ALEF is to partner with established
academic institutions across Appalachia to
provide the technical skills necessary as the
basis for credible leadership
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AHE Network centers provide grants
of approximately $2,000–$10,000
to high schools in their service
areas via a competitive process. The
schools then implement low-cost,
high-impact activities and services
to encourage participation in
postsecondary education, such as
college campus and worksite visits,
financial aid training, occupational
interest surveys, and assistance
with college selection and
application processes.
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Clabber – unpasteurized milk that is
allowed to sour, then add brown
sugar, molasses, cinnamon, etc.
Bonnie clabber –brought by the
Ulster Scots
◦ It’s a Gaelic combination: milk and sour
milk
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Whiskey – distillation tech. brought
from Africa and the Middle East and
settled in Scotland/England in the
Monasteries at first
◦ With the Act of Union of 1707, high
taxes drove it into illegal production
(esp. at night to hide the smoke)
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The British, French, and various
Indian tribes
The British had allied with the
Iroquois, and the French are
concerned
The French fur trade depended on
the relations with the many
Algonquin-speaking Indians
Most of this conflict was in the N.
Appalachians, but the French
pressured the Southern Tribes. This
worried the officials in Carolinas
and Virginia
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Virginia settlement schemes to
move into the Ohio Valley:
Recruiting settlers
By 1754 Virginia had granted
more than 2.5 million acres to
companies in and beyond the
mountains
◦ One was the Loyal Land Co. of which
Dr. Thomas Walker and others came
through the Cumberland Gap in 1750
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The war involved many
altercations between militia and
the Cherokee in Virginia and the
Carolinas
When the French were defeated
that left only one foe- the British
(and the Colonists who were
growing increasingly independent
of Britain, esp. those moving into
the mountains)
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After an initial “conspiracy” of
Indians to defeat the British
(led by Pontiac) London issued
the Proclamation of 1763
◦ Forbidding white migration and
settlement beyond the crest of the
Appalachians
◦ Impact
 Colonists upset. Wasn’t that the
purpose for defeating the French?
 Speculator, hunter, settler, trader
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There was an attempt in the 1760s
to create a trans-Appalachian
colony called Vandalia
◦ It was to be about where West Virginia is
today
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Pennsylvanians who did not
possess western claims bought
some land from the Iroquois, but it
collapsed
London had no time for such
nonsense
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The colonies began allowing
hunting parties into the
Appalachian Region in the 1760s
and 70s.
Long hunters enter Kentucky
The legend of Daniel Boone and
others
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Both the French and Indian War and
the Am. Rev. had driven most
Native Americans out of the area
Large tracks of land were made
available to veterans
◦ However, many speculators purchased
these lands from them, creating
absentee land owners
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Squatters were popular
◦ A family could virtually move in
unnoticed and then easily move on
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By 1780 America included all
west to the Mississippi.
This meant 9 of the original 13
colonies had lands in the
Appalachian Mtns.
Then the next 3 did as well: VT,
KY, TN
By 1790 180,000 whites to less
than 50,000 Indians
Most, whether they owned land
or not, “ranched” in the
mountains
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The attempted State of Franklin
during the late 1700s
About 20,000 in Eastern
Tennessee sought their own State
(they invited a few of NC’s
counties
This very much aligned with the
frontier spirit, but it collapsed due
to the U.S. Constitution
◦ No state can be divided without
Federal consent
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Transylvania Company
◦ Richard Henderson and Daniel Boone
move into the Bluegrass and “buy” land
from the Cherokee (they didn’t really own
it, the Iroquois were here as well)
◦ 1774 Boonesboro
◦ After the Revolution it becomes a county
of Virginia
◦ Statehood for Kentucky was eventually a
matter for the Ohio Valley and the
Bluegrass area; Eastern Kentucky was
embroiled in local issues
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Most Appalachians were not even
considered during ratification
However, they preferred the
Articles of Confederation (limited
government)
North Carolina did not even ratify
the Constitution until it was
functioning
The exception to not supporting
the Constitution was Western
Virginia
◦ Why?
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When the New Government takes
hold, opposition from the hills
◦ Whiskey Rebellion
 Hamilton needed revenue for the new
nation
 Issued an excise tax on distilled whiskey
 ¼ of all national distilling took place in 4
Appalachian counties in Pennsylvania
 Western farmers and Appalachians felt
targeted
 They usually had little cash, so whiskey
served as a medium for exchange
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Southern Appalachians upset
over Indian policy
◦ Washington felt the Federal
Government could only move
against one group at a time
 They chose the Indians of the
Northwest, ignoring the South and
Southwest
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For these reasons, many in the
Appalachians welcomed the
decline of the Federalists and
the incoming power of the
Democrats
◦ Jeffersonian democracy
◦ By 1800, two societies were
developing
 Tuckahoes – wealthy lowcountry elites
 Cohees – poor farmers from the hills
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Cohee culture
◦ Grazing, farmland economy with
cattle and hog grazing on an “open
range” in the forests
◦ Patch farming in cleared portions
◦ Families lived in isolated farmsteads
◦ Neighborhood churches and school
houses were the center of community
interest
◦ It was not a capitalistic oriented
agriculture
◦ The focus was family survival
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During the pre-Civil War era
the Southern Appalachia
economy was quite
diversified
◦ Farming with a broader market
based system
◦ Small towns with stores
beginning to develop
◦ Ores and coal produced
foundries
◦ Salt mining
◦ Gold mining
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Backwoods religion became
inundated with Methodists and
Baptists
The seminary-trained Presbyterians
could not service a area with so few
ministers
They established nonestablishmentarian churches
◦ They ordained any man whom a local
congregation deemed worthy
◦ All you needed was proper faith and an
open heart
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When the Baptists have a split
between missionary and antimissionary (Primitive) most of
the Primitive is concentrated in
Appalachia
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Jefferson’s policy of agriculture
and expansion westward was
favored by the Backcountry
With a few Indian Wars of the early
1800s over, the Southern
Appalachians was a white man’s
country
Andrew Jackson
◦ they get one of their own in the White
House
◦ Indian Removal
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Problems between the
backwoods and the tidewater
over representation
This was an issue of slavery
◦ In Virginia the westerners argued
strongly for emancipation
◦ Many Germans and Quakers argued
against slavery
◦ Many Appalachia counties had
virtually no slaves (however that did
not mean it wasn’t there)
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Though the numbers were low in
Appalachia, it was growing up until
the Civil War
◦ In Burke, NC, from 7% in 1790 to 26% in
1860
◦ Why?
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In Appalachia, the local elites did
own several slaves, and theirs did
not seem to be a consistent view
across the board
One thing is for sure, many of the
Appalachians opposed slavery
because of opposition to the
planter elite
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There was a strong anti-slavery
movement in the Appalachians
Many times “log cabin colleges”
in TN taught an anti-slavery
doctrine
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Though Cohee society may have
been largely antislavery, it had
made peace with slave society
In Appalachia it really did pit father
against son and brother against
brother
Many areas of seceding states had
treasonous section in the
mountains
◦ Many of these pro-union areas talked of
their own potential statehood
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During the War this area was
constantly part of the Western
Campaigns
The War was destructive to the
entire area
◦ What little schools there were closed
◦ Agricultural life was destroyed (raiders
on both sides)
◦ Feuds developed
◦ Also a haven for deserters (rich man’s
war, but a poor man’s fight: based on
conscription laws in the South)
◦ Authority had collapsed
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KNPEZRTp
wPw
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He attributes most of the
settlement of Appalachia to the
plantation economy of the
American South
◦ When labor was in short supply the
planters looked to the streets of
England
 These streets were “nauseous hell holes of
crime and venality.”
 Kids could be hanged for theft
 Fathers thrown in jail for life because of
debts
 Great hordes of orphans roamed the cities
and countrysides
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Series of Parliamentary Acts made it
possible to transport street orphans,
debtors, and criminals to the New
World- indentureships
Settlement of Georgia, Virginia, and the
Carolinas
Even kidnabbers
But not all who arrived could make it in
a stable society (some did though)
◦ Death and even piracy
◦ The rest fled to the interior – to the Piedmont
and then to the foothills of the Blue Ridge
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These were the first Southern
Mountaineers
Caudill does connect them to the
Borderland tradition, especially by
name: Adams, Allen, Anderson,
Baker, . . . Wells, White, Williams,
Workman, and Wright
They lived and learned amongst the
Cherokees – even the cabin
They helped defeat the Crown at
the Battle of King’s Mountain and
were rewarded with allotments of
“Western lands”

At this battle the British
commander referred to the
frontier militiamen as
“barbarians”
◦ Militiamen - 28 dead
◦ British/loyalists – 1104 dead or
captured
◦ Served as a major turning point for
the war


All he needed was land with an
availability of game and some soil
to lay down a corn patch
And until about 1830, “all of the
parent stock of the basic
population had arrived, and few
settlers came into the region after
that date.”

The Blue Ridge mountaineer
became a farmer – dependant on
crops and livestock
◦ Indians (Choctaws and Shawnees)
became a threat, so the Appalachians
needed long-barrelled “polkstalk”
shotguns
◦ Mongrel dogs were bred
◦ Established himself amongst his
freedom and did not seek to expand
westward, keeping away from the
advancement and restrictions of
civilization


These mountaineers were able to
withstand the Indians because
they were like them – adopting
the “red man’s skills and tactics
and used them with greater
tenacity and persistence”
Despite this, he mated with the
red man’s squaws (mostly
Cherokee and Choctaw)



As the farmer settled down, pork
took over the staple diet
With money scarce the
mountaineer manufactured
whiskey to send down the river to
the distilleries in Louisville or
Frankfort
Most places did not get names
until the railroads or coal mines
came in and surveyors took over.

Lack of religious
establishment allowed for a
mix of Christian tradition and
half-remembered beliefs
(superstitions)
◦ Page 25

Superstitions and Indian
remedies for the sick
◦ Page 26

Schooling
◦ “the pioneer tended to reject all discussion
and consideration of ideas in the abstract.”
◦ “Things and people were the ingredients of
life.”
 Food, whiskey, heat, cold, shelter, enmities,
sexual gratification
◦ Not until 1864 did Kentucky levy a tax for
support of schools
 Required owners of dogs paid $1 per dog
(after the second dog)
 ½ of fines collected from violators of the
antigambling laws
 Later the GA imposed a tax of 5 cents per one
hundred dollars of assessed property
 Kentucky was possibly hurt by not being in
Reconstruction like other southern states


Locals knew little about the coal
beyond what it could do for them in
their home, etc.
Outsiders were well aware of the
economic potential
◦ Speculators come after the Civil War as
America is expanding
◦ Many of the mountaineers didn’t even own
the land they lived on in the first place
◦ To claim land you had to survey it and pay
a fee to the state treasury
 In 1875 huge tracts of land went for 26.5
cents per acre



The speculators were schooled in
business and law
Some came and acquired the land in toto
Others just came for the mineral rights
and the right of removal
◦ This limited their tax liabilities (taxes applied
to the surface)
◦ Because of the popularity of land purchases,
in many places the cost per acre had risen to
$5-6
◦ Since “furriner” had no intention on utilizing
the land, mountaineers had not problem
selling these rights



The mountaineer was given an
illusion of ownership
So when the “big shot” comes down
from up East and butters up the
mountaineer it makes him feel
better about his poor lot in life (pg.
73)
No more than 25% of mineral deeds
were signed by grantors who could
so much as scrawl their names

Long-form deeds
◦ Passes to the company the title to all
“coal, oil, and gas and all ‘mineral and
metallic substances and all
combinations of the same.’”
◦ They were given the right to excavate
for minerals, build roads (or any other
structure) convenient or necessary for
extraction, to use the timber, to divert
water, etc.
◦ The landowners land became servient to
the dominant rights of the company
◦ The landowner got about $.50 per acre,
and never exceeding $5.00 per acre



In 1913 coal companies were
extracting 1,000 to 1,500 tons of
coal per acre foot
a single acre (especially with more
than one seam) could yield 15,000 to
20,000 tons
The mountaineer got a single halfdollar
◦ The company got $3 million+

In the early 1900s, 85% of the
minerals had passed out of the
hands of the plateau dwellers

Exam on Friday
◦ This exam will cover our work covering the first 137
pages of Night Comes to the Cumberlands and our
discussion concerning mining in Appalachia
◦ The discussions did not all come in the form of
specific notes on the board or through PowerPoint,
but there has been general information regarding
the impact of coal mining.
◦ This will also cover the three readings f