LEXICAL CATEGORIES
LI 2013
N AT H A L I E F. M A R T I N
Syntactic/Lexical Categories
C AT E G O R I E S O F W O R D S
D I S T I N G U I S H I N G C AT E G O R I E S :
• INFLECTION
• DISTRIBUTION
• REPLACEMENT
A Concise
Introduction to
Linguistics,
Rowe & al. 2012:
Contemporary
Linguistics Analysis,
O’Grady & al.,
2009:
p. 107-114.
p. 146-150.
Making Sense of It All!
Lewis Carroll in his
1872 novel Through the
Looking-Glass, and
What Alice Found
There, a poem entitled
Jabberwocky.
What is the lexical
category of:
a) Brillig
b) Slithy
c) Toves*
d) Gyre*
e) Gimble*
j) Raths
f) Wabe*
k) Outgrabe
g) Mimsy
h) Borogroves
i) Mome
Which are English
words? Why is it
important that
those words remain
there?
Syntactic/lexical Categories
 = Word/Grammatical Classes = Parts of
Speech
 All languages have syntactic categories.
 The syntactic category of a word
determines the role it can play in a
sentence.
 Only a noun can complete the sentence
“Give a __________ to me.”
Syntactic Categories (1)
 Noun (N)
 Pronoun (Pro)
 Verb (V)
 Adjective (A)
 Preposition (P)
 Adverb (Adv)
Examples
 moisture, thought
 Me, I, they, these
 melt, remain
 good, intelligent
 to, near
 slowly, now
Syntactic Categories (2)
Examples:
 Determiner
(Det)
 Auxiliary (Aux)
 Conjunction (Con)
 Degree word
(Deg)
(formerly part of Adv)
 the,
this
 will, can
 and, or, because
 very, too
Adjectives
THE FUNCTION OF AN ADJECTIVE IS TO MODIFY
A NOUN
Adjectives
Proper
adjectives:
 American
 French
 Baptist
Adjectives
 red orange yello
w
d
Condition
Adjectives
 better careful cle
Appearance
ver wrong.
Adjectives
Feelings (Bad)
 Adorable clean d
Adjectives
rab elegant
 Angry embarrass
Color
ed grumpy worrie
http://www.momswhothink.com/reading/list-of-adjectives.html
Adjectives
Feelings (Good)  cooing deafening
Adjectives
faint hissing lou
d
 agreeable brave
calm delightful o  Time Adjectives
bedient
 ancient brief
Shape Adjectives
 broad chubby cro Taste/Touch
oked
Adjectives
Size Adjectives
 bitter delicious fr
 big colossal puny esh yummy
Sound Adjectives
http://www.momswhothink.com/reading/list-of-adjectives.html
Adjectives
Touch Adjectives
 Boiling chilly cold cool
eavy light many numerous
sparse substantial
Quantity Adjectives
 abundant empty few full h
http://www.momswhothink.com/reading/list-of-adjectives.html
DEGREE WORDS
THE FUNCTION OF THE DEGREE WORD IS TO
MODIFY THE ADJECTIVE
Degree words
 Qualifies an adjective
DETERMINERS
THE FUNCTION OF THE DETERMINER IS TO
INTRODUCE THE NOUN.
IT ALSO, IN A SENSE, NARROWS THE MEANING
OF THE NOUN
Determiners
 A word or a group of words that introduces a noun.
 Determiners include :
 Articles (the, a, an)
 Demonstratives (these, those, this, that … but only when
introducing a noun!)
 Quantifiers (Many, one, two, Few, etc.)
 Possessive determiners (my, your, his, her … but only when
introducing a noun!)
PRONOUNS
THE FUNCTION OF A PRONOUN IS TO REPLACE A
NOUN (PHRASE)
Pronouns
 The function of a pronoun is to replace
a noun (phrase)
 I,
you, he, she, they
 Mine, ours, yours …
 It, these*, those*
 Myself, yourself, itself …
 All, another, everybody, anything
 Who, whom
Pronouns
 Let’s take the example of the noun phrase “The
boy”
 Third
person singular masculine …
As the subject of the sentence = He (ex: He
danced)
As the object of the sentence = Him (I like him)
Answers the questions “who?”, “whom?” or “what?”
Not
to be confused with “his” (which is 3rd person
sing. Masc, but does not necessarily replace a
noun phrase)
Pronouns + Possessive
 Let’s take the example of the noun phrase
“The boy’s”
 Third
person singular masculine + possessive …
As object + possessive = I like his.
Less ambiguity with feminine = I like hers.
to be confused with the determiner “his” (which
is 3rd person sing. Masc. + possessive, but does not
replace a noun phrase)
• Ex: I like his shoes
 Not
DETERMINER or PRONOUN?
Determiner or Pronoun?
 The essential question to be asked is “what is the
function of this word within the sentence?”


Determiner = introduces a noun
Pronoun = replaces a noun
Examples:
 I like his.
 His shoes are gross.
 I think I will get these.
 I will buy these 4 inch metallic pumps.
PREPOSITIONS
THE FUNCTION OF A PREPOSITION IS TO
INTRODUCE A NOUN PHRASE (NP) IN A
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP)
Prepositions
Prepositions are the words that indicate location. Usually,
prepositions show this location in the physical world. Check
out the three examples below:
The puppy is on the floor.
The puppy is beside the phone.
The puppy is in the trash can.
©1997 - 2012 by Robin L. Simmons
http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/preposition.htm
Prepositions
 Prepositions generally introduce prepositional
phrase (PP).

Prepositional Phrases (PP) usually look like this:
 Preposition + NP (noun or pronoun)
 At
school: At = preposition; school = noun (NP).
 According to us: According to = preposition; us =
pronoun (also a NP).
 Under the stove: Under = preposition; the stove =
noun phrase.
©1997 - 2012 by Robin L. Simmons
http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/preposition.htm
Prepositions
 about
 around
 between
 excepting
 above
 as
 Beyond
 for
 according to  as for
 by
 from
 across
 at
 by means of  in
 after
 because of
 concerning
 in addition to
 against
 before
 despite
 in back of
 along
 behind
 down
 in case of
 along with
 below
 during
 in front of
 among
 beneath
 except
 in place of
 apart from
 beside
 except for
©1997 - 2012 by Robin L. Simmons
http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/preposition.htm
Prepositions
 inside
 on onto
 since
 until
 in spite of  on top of
 through
 up
 instead of  out
 throughout  upon
 into
 out of
 till
 up to
 like
 outside
 to
 with
 near
 over
 toward
 within
 next
 past
 under
 without
 of
 regarding
 underneath
 off
 round
 unlike
©1997 - 2012 by Robin L. Simmons
http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/preposition.htm
ADVERB
THE FUNCTION OF AN ADVERB IS TO MODIFY
THE VERB.
Adverb
 Adverbs of manner describe how something




happens. Ex: carefully, patiently, well …
Adverbs of place describe where something
happens. Ex: abroad, anywhere, in, out, upstairs.
Adverbs of purpose describe why something
happens. Ex: so that, to, because, since
Adverbs of frequency describe how often
something happens. Ex: always, often, seldom …
Adverbs of time describe when something
happens. Ex: after, already, later, now, soon,
recently yesterday.
http://www.momswhothink.com/reading/list-of-adverbs.html
Adverb
 abnormally
 beautifully
 daily
 far
 absentmindedly  Bitterly
 Daintily
 fast
 Accidentally
 briefly
 delightfully
 Less*
 afterwards
 brightly
 diligently
 More*
 almost
 briskly
 Dreamily
 Never
 always
 broadly
 elegantly
 Not
 Angrily
 Busily
 especially
 often
 anxiously
 calmly
 even
 Only
 arrogantly
 carefully
 evenly
 Too
 Awkwardly
 carelessly
 eventually
 Upright
 badly
 cheerfully
 exactly
 bashfully
 Clearly
 excitedly
http://www.momswhothink.com/reading/list-of-adverbs.html
ADVERB or PREPOSITION?
THE FUNCTION OF AN ADVERB IS TO MODIFY
THE VERB.
Adverb or Preposition?
 Words that are sometimes prepositions can
act as adverbs. A preposition requires an
object. An adverb does not.
 A single word acting as an adverb answers
where, when, how or to what degree about
the verb.
 When the same word is a preposition, the
entire prepositional phrase acts as an
adverb modifying the verb.
Adverb or Preposition?
 If you want to see
the eclipse, you will
need to go
outside.
 OUTSIDE
tells you
where YOU WILL
NEED TO GO.
NOTE: Without an
object OUTSIDE is
an ____________
 Dorothy colors
outside the lines.
 OUTSIDE
THE
LINES is an
adverbial phrase
and OUTSIDE is a
preposition.
NOTE: LINES is
the object of the
______________.
http://www.grammaruntied.com/prepositions/adv_prep.html
Adverb or Preposition?
 To determine whether a word is an adverb or
a preposition, look at what follows the word.
Is there a noun acting as an object of the
word? In other words, is there a word that
answers the question WHAT? about the
word.
 It will be some time before his schedule
settles down.
 DOWN
tells the reader WHERE the schedule
settles. There is no object following it.
Adverb or Preposition?
 Please sit down
 One need only look
and listen. DOWN
tells the listener
WHERE to SIT.
down the roster to
see the impact of
so much travel.
 There

is no object
telling him or her
WHAT to SIT
DOWN.
ROSTER answers the
question WHAT? about
the word DOWN.
 ROSTER is the object
of the preposition
DOWN.
http://www.dukeofdefinition.com/prepositions_adverbs.htm
AUXILIARY
T H E F U N C T I ON OF T H E AU X I L I ARY I S TO H E L P
THE MAIN VERB
AUXILIARY VERBS
 A verb (such as have, do, or
will) that determines the mood,
tense, or aspect of another verb
in a verb phrase.
 Auxiliary verbs always precede
main verbs within a verb
phrase. Auxiliaries are also
known as helping verbs.
http://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/auxverbterm.htm
AUXILIARY VERBS
"The auxiliary verbs of English
are the following:
can,
may, will, shall, must,
ought, need, dare
be, have, do, use
http://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/auxverbterm.htm
AUXILIARIES VERBS (examples)
may1
May I stay?
may2
That may take place.
might
We might give it a try.
Such things can help.
must1
You must not mock me.
could1
I could swim.
must2
It must have rained.
could2
That could help.
shall
You shall not pass.
do
You did not understand.
should1
You should listen.
have
They have understood.
should2
That should help.
will
We will eat pie.
would
Nothing would accomplish
that
be2
He is sleeping.
be3
can1
They were seen.
I can swim.
can2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verb
ADVERB or AUXILIARY?
Adverb or Auxiliary?
 An adverb describes a
verb; e.g. He ran
quickly (quickly
describing ran).
 An auxiliary verb (or
helping verb) is a
verb, just not the main
one;
 is a verb functioning to
give further semantic
or syntactic
information about the
main or full verb
following it.
(Grammar and Composition by Prentice Hall)
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_difference_between_an_adverb_and_an_auxiliary_or_helping_verb
Adverb or Auxiliary?
Adverb:
 He ran quickly
(quickly describing
ran).
Auxiliary verb:
 He had run (had is a
verb, but he didn't
"have", he ran) or She
is going (she isn't
"being" (in the sense
of it being the verb),
she is going).
 "We are all worms, but
I do believe I am a
glowworm.“ (Winston Churchill)
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_difference_between_an_adverb_and_an_auxiliary_or_helping_verb
Dictionary of Choice
for Lexical Categories
 http://www.merriam-webster.com/
m-w.com
-Be careful of:
-Det (not adj)
-Degree
TRICKS
To Distinguish Categories
According to meaning
2. Inflection
3. Distribution
4. Replacement
1.
According to the Meaning
 Nouns
= entities (people, things), including
individuals (Harry, Sue), objects (book, desk)
 Verbs = actions (run, jump), sensations (feel, hurt),
and states (be, remain)
 Adjectives: Properties and attributes of a noun.
 Adverbs:
 Properties and attributes of the actions,
sensations, and states (verbs)
 Manner and time
 What about words like: likelihood, give a push, near
Distinguishing Categories
 Native speakers may have a good intuition
about the syntactic category of a word.
 But linguists require more objective ways of
determining syntactic categories.
 There are three tests one can use:
1.
2.
3.
Inflection
Distribution
Verification through replacement
Test 1: Inflection
 Certain inflectional paradigms apply
only to one syntactic category.
 For example, if a word can take the
inflectional suffix -ed in English, it must
belong to the verb category.
English Inflectional Morphemes
Nouns
–s
plural
–’s
possessive
Verbs
–s
third person singular present
–ed
past tense
–en
past participle
–ing
progressive
Adjectives
–er
comparative
–est
superlative
Rowe & Levine, p. 93-94
Test 1: Inflection
Lets try in out:
The
cute cat dances.
You think the end is near.
What about these words: sing (-ed*),
intelligent (-er*), knowledge(-s*), etc.
Test 2: Distribution
 The words with which a word may co-
occur can be used to determine its
syntactic category.
 Example: only nouns can come after a
or the in English.
 All languages have such distributional
restrictions on syntactic categories.
Test 2: Distribution
Lets try in out:
Great
joy is to come in the morning.
Joy comes later today.
Holidays are the best!
Distribution tests – Rules of other languages
 Distribution tests for syntactic categories are
different in all languages.
 Chinese has no articles like a, the. So you
can’t test for nouns with them.
 But in Chinese, only nouns co-occur with
“classifiers”. If a word can come after a
classifier, it must be a noun.
Verification Test 3: Replacement
 To test to see if you have assigned
the right lexical category, it is
possible to replace the word with
another word of that same category
– even if the sentence becomes
nonsensical.
Verification Test 3: Replacement
Lets try in out:
Great
joy is to come in the morning.
Joy comes later today.
Holidays are the best!
Translation
and Lexical
Categories
W H AT G O T L O S T
I N T R A N S L AT I O N ?
W R I T T E N O N M Y H E AT E R :