COM 372
Methods of Intercultural
Communication Research
John R. Baldwin
jrbaldw@ilstu.edu
January 26, 2007
Ways to Study Values
(Gudykunst & Nishida, 1989)
Emic
Studies behavior from
within system
Examines only one
culture
Structure discovered by
analyst
Criteria relative to internal
characteristics
“Cultural” Communication
Etic
Studies behavior from
outside of system
Examines many cultures
(comparing)
Structure created by analyst
Criteria considered
absolute, universal
Cross-Cultural
Communication
Paradigms & ICC
• The three biggies:
– Scientific
– Humanistic
– Critical
• 2 dimensions (Burrell & Morgan, 1979)
– Ontological/Epistemological
– Axiological
Two Dimensions of Social Research
Burrell & Morgan introduce two dimensions to try to make sense of how different
social scientists see and study the world.
• The subjective-objective dimension
• The regulation-radical change
dimension
(Gibson Burrell and Gareth Morgan (1979) Sociological
Paradigms and Organisational Analysis. London: Heinemann.
OUR First Dimension will become a horizontal access of research—from
“subjective” to “objective.” The best way to think of this is to think of where reality
lies. If the observer performs the action of observing, she is the subject; but the
thing being observed receives the action, and thus is an “object.” If truth is in the
object (real, separate from the knowledge or awareness of any person) truth is
“objective.” But if truth is in the eye of the observer (the subject), it is “subjective.”
The Subjective-Objective Dimension
The subjectivist
approach to
social science
The objectivist
approach to
social science
Nominalism
ontology
Realism
Voluntarism
human nature
Determinism
Anti-positivism
epistemology
Positivism
Ideographic
methodology
Nomothetic
(Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)
The Subjective-Objective Dimension
Subjective
Nominalism
Objective
ontology
Realism
Ontology: Pertains to assumptions about the nature of what is real (like French,
“ils ont—they are”)—is reality circular or linear, knowable or unknowable? What is
human nature like? [Note: not “what is real” but the assumptions researchers hold
about reality]
For 372, you will not need to know fancy words on right & left, but should be able to
understand the two positions.
• Objective researchers believe that there is a reality apart from any observer —
truth is external to observers and is “real” whether or not we perceive of it (realism).
• Subjective researchers feel that, to varying degrees, things are real (like “race,”
“romance,” or “motivation” only to the degree that we name them (“nominalism”)—
that is, we create reality with words and symbols, and it is not separate from
observers.
(Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)
The Subjective-Objective Dimension
The subjectivist
approach to
social science
Voluntarism
The objectivist
approach to
social science
human nature
Determinism
Human Nature is linked to ontology, for it raises the question of what motivates or
explains human behavior (what are humans “like”?
Objective researchers hold that humans act in response to external and internal
stimuli in a cause-effect fashion (“A determines B,” hence “determinism”). If you see
words like variables, cause/effect, influence, and so on, this suggests an
objective approach. Here, people act “because of” (does the name Pavlov ring a
bell?
• Subjective researchers suggest that humans do not act “because of,” but “in order
to.” That is, humans are goal-oriented, choice making individuals (“voluntarism”).
While there might be some regularity in choices people make, since they ultimately
make choices, no prediction is possible—only explanation of why people make the
choices or descriptions of the behaviors themselves.
(Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)
The Subjective-Objective Dimension
Subjective
Anti-positivism
Objective
epistemology
Positivism
Epistemology: Pertains to assumptions about the nature of knowledge (like an
“epistle” or letter that gives us knowledge, perhaps?): How do we really “know” what
we know? Does knowledge accumulate bit by bit? Can we “know” anything with
certainty, and what counts as evidence? For 372, you will not need to know fancy
words on right & left, but should be able to understand the two positions.
• Objective researchers—the most extreme ones, state that by removing personal
biases and using a rigorous method (i.e., the scientific method), we can know
things with absolute certainty (“positivism”). Others feel that we should try to know
to make probable assumptions, even though our biases might come to play (“postpositivists”). More communication researchers are in this camp, with more physical
scientists in the former camp. Think: validity, reliability, generalizability,
reduction of bias.
• Subjective researchers feel that, even if there are some regularities, there is no
way to know anything or make any absolute predictions. They are “anti-positivists”
(Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)
(not the same as being “negativists!” 
The Subjective-Objective Dimension
Subjective
Ideographic
Objective
methodology
Nomothetic
Purpose of methodology and theory: Methodology does not refer to the method
used, but to assumptions about what methods of research should try to do—the
very purpose of theory. This is, of course, related to ontology and epistemology.
Objective researchers: Since reality is external, and we can know it with rigorous
(often quantitative methods —at least in communication), the purpose of the social
scientific researcher is to discover or uncover the underlying causes and
effects of human behavior—that is, the “universal laws” (in Greek, nomos = law,
thus, nomothetic means uncovering or finding universal cause-effect laws). The
purpose of theory and research, then, is to predict outcomes.
Subjective researchers: Since we cannot predict anyone with certainty (because
people make choices regardless of possible causes), any attempt at prediction is
basically pointless. Rather, researchers seek to provide explanations of single
texts or groups of people (“ideo” = single; “graphic” = writing) in their contexts.
These are not intended to “generalize’ to other contexts, though some aspects
(Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)
might “apply” to other texts, behaviors, or contexts.
The Regulation - Radical Change Dimension
The Second Dimension crosses the first and deals with axiology—assumptions
about the role of values in research. In brief, some researchers (both subj and obj)
bring their values into their research to critique social reality (especially
oppression, like sexism, racism, and so on). Others (both obj and subj) seek
merely to either explain or predict reality, but feel that to bring values into the
picture would keep us from making appropriate predictions (sci) or explanations
from the perspectives of the people in the context (subj).
The sociology of
REGULATION is
concerned with:
Status quo (observing)
•Social order
•Consensus
•Social integration and
cohesion
•Solidarity
•Need satisfaction
•Actuality
The sociology of
RADICAL CHANGE is
concerned with:
Social change
•Structural conflict
•Modes of domination
•Contradiction
•Emancipation
•Deprivation
•Potentiality
(Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 18)
Four Paradigms for Social Analysis
THE SOCIOLOGY OF RADICAL CHANGE
‘Radical
humanist’
‘Radical
structuralist’
SUBJECTIVE
OBJECTIVE
‘Interpretive’
‘Functionalist’
THE SOCIOLOGY OF REGULATION
(Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 22)
Application to “Values”
• “Face-to-Face”
– Reynolds (1984)
– Friday (2003)
– Other methods?
• Media study
– Content analysis
– Rhetorical criticism
Reynolds, 1984
• The study: 10 universities
• Lots of participants (why?)
• Closed-ended survey: Rokeach Value
Survey
– Instrumental Values: the “end” desired
– Terminal Values: the “means to the end”
(desirable characteristics in a person)
• The findings (see overheads)
Friday, 2003
American
German
 Business is not as
impersonal
 Need to be liked
 Need to be credible
 Assertiveness, Direct
 Assertiveness,
Sophistication, Direct
Confrontation, Fair Play
Confrontation
• Besprechung
 Discussion
 Business is impersonal
 Informal Culture
 Formal Culture
Doing Research
• The next slides pertain to doing a primary
research project and are not relevant to COM
372 Summer 2007! Still, they will give you a
good idea of the three paradigms, so please
read the rest. Watch for sample quiz
questions at the end!
• Some of the early slides may help you pick a
“portfolio” topic. I will use a variety of
examples for each type of research, with
three specific follow up “portfolio” topics.
Doing Intercultural Research: Terms
Step 1: Choose your general focus: media, people,
& type of sample (with examples)
• Cultures and co-cultures: Latinos versus European
Americans
• Cultural: In-depth study of decision-making in a Black
evangelical church
• Cross-cultural: Japanese versus American norms for
giving/receiving compliments
• Intercultural: Issues in Deaf-hearing communication
• International: Latin American media systems
• Cultural studies (media): Representations of Latinos
in U.S. media
Doing Intercultural Research: Approaches
Step 2: Choose your assumptions!
What kind of claim do you want to make?
– A claim about groups in general (i.e., a
“prediction” claim?)
– A claim about a specific group or claim?
(i.e., an “explanation” claim?)
– A value neutral claim?
– A claim that relates to social equality?
Doing Intercultural Research: Methods
Step 3: Choose your method!
• Social scientific:
– Comparison between groups?
– Relationships between variables for a
single (or multiple) groups?
– Methods:
• People: Experiment, closed-ended
questionnaire, open-ended questionnaire
• Texts: Content analysis
Doing Intercultural Research: Examples
Step 3: Choose your method!
• Social scientific:
– Do men and women respond differently to
different persuasion behaviors?
– Is ethnocentrism related to cognitive
complexity or prior travel experience?
– In what way, and with what frequency, do
women appear in music videos?
– Do different ethnic groups respond
differently to a particular PR campaign?
Doing Intercultural Research: Methods
• Interpretive:
– Texts:
• Rhetorical/textual analysis, semiotics, etc.
• Burke, Aristotle, Fisher, or other
• Thematic analysis, genres, archetypes
– People:
• Interviews, Focus Groups
• Observation
• Open-ended questionnaire
– Narrative Analysis
Narrative Analysis (Hall, 2005, Ch. 3)
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Hymes’ “SPEAKING” framework is one we will consider later for
doing “ethnographic” observation—one can use it to observe to
determine the rules of certain behavior. Not on Exam 1!
Scene: What are physical and social contexts where handshakes
occur?
Participants: Who tends to be involved in handshakes (e.g.,
romantic partners meeting for a date?)
Ends (motives/purposes): Why would people shake hands instead
of, say, hugging, bowing, kissing, or slapping?
Act sequence: What happens prior to handshake? Who starts it?
Are words exchanged and when?
Key (tone, feeling): Is handshake aggressive, warm?
Instrumentalities (channel): handshake: nonverbal
Norms (expected behaviors): When/how do you shake hands?
Force, strength? How long to you hold the hand shake?
Genre (type of comm event): shaking hands
Doing Intercultural Research: Examples
• Interpretive:
– How did the Chigago Tribune coverage frame the
Hurricane Katrina disaster and relief efforts?
– How do students interpret the effects of ISU’s
global studies requirements?
– What communicative strategies do interracial
romantic partners report as being effective for their
relationships?
– What are the predominant themes in The
Simpsons’ construction of the American family?
Doing Intercultural Research: Methods
• Critical: Can be “objective” or “subjective,”
quantitative or qualitative!
Do heavy readers of Women’s magazines report lower
self-esteem or body image than light or non-readers?
How do the lyrics of The Dixie Chicks both challenge
and reinforce traditional gender roles?
How do people of color respond to Eminem’s rap
music?
How does Spike Lee manipulate traditional stereotypes
of Blacks in Bamboozled to offer a more empowering
reading to the Black audience?
Three Portfolio Examples
Mass Media: Latinos in the media
• Abstract: any study that looks at representation
of Latinos in media
• Survey: A measure of stereotypes of Latinos
and other groups, combined with questions on
media use
• Interpretive: Open-ended questionnaire to
Latinos on their overall perceptions of media
representation of Latinos
• Critical: Are Latino’s portrayed stereotypically in
recent film, Take the Lead (with Antonio
Banderas?
Three Portfolio Examples
Public Relations: Dove’s “Campaign for Real Beauty”)
• Abstract: No research on Campaign for Real Beauty
(CRB) yet, so you find your own article on cultural
notions of beauty or on women’s self-image and
media usage or on a related PR study
• Survey: A measure of campaign effectiveness,
borrowed from some source, designed for different
audiences of women, based on perceptions of CRB
• Interpretive: An open-ended analysis of stories on
the CRB “personal stories” web page
• Critical: A critical analysis of the main image(s) of
the CRB campaign: Whom do they include, whom do
they exclude, and what do they say about “real
beauty”?
Three Portfolio Examples
Comm Studies: South Koreans in U.S. Universities
• Abstract: Abstract on study that compares Korean and
American comm (e.g., by Min Sum Kim)
• Survey: Find a specific measure of communication, say in
the book on-line (like “Communicator Style” index by
Norton); draft it to give to U.S. instructors and S. Korean
students to find differences
• Interpretive: An interview with a single S. Korean student
(or instructor); develop themes of successful and
unsuccessful peer-to-peer or teacher-student interaction
• Critical: A qualitative analysis of on-line syllabi for School
of Communication to see how courses would “marginalize”
S. Korean students
• three as examples, one each from
media (representation of Latinos in the
media), public relations (Dove’s
“Campaign for Real Beauty”) and one
from communication studies (Korean
and American communication in the
U.S. university).