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Keaton Unroe
ANTH 101
Dr. Jordan
19 November 2014
Alchemy and its Contributions to Modern Science
Alchemy is defined by “a system of philosophy which hoped or claimed to penetrate the
mystery of life and to understand and control the formation of inanimate substances” (Curtis).
Alchemy is used to turn the ordinary into extraordinary. In other terms, alchemy is concerned
with purifying the substrates which alchemists worked upon. Alchemists strive to reach a perfect
state through the processes of alchemy. There were three main goals that alchemists wished to
attain. The first of these goals was the conversion of base metals into noble metals, such as lead
to gold transmutations. Gold was considered to be the perfect metal, and alchemy attempted to
transmutate lower metals into this perfect metal. This transformation lead to the increased
popularity of alchemy later in time. The second of these goals was the creation of the Elixir of
Life. According to scholars, “The Elixir of Life . . . was conceived by the alchemists as a
material to impart immortality to the taker or to cure him of disease or to bring him youth”
(Benton). The Elixir of Life was thought to bring perfection to the body by decreasing disease
and aliments, bringing youth, and striving for immortality. Immortality was seen as reaching the
achievement of the perfect human being. The final goal of alchemy was to create the
Philosopher’s Stone. The Philosopher’s Stone was believed to be a substance that was “the
perfect medicine for metal, able to purify the impure, fix the volatile, and give life a brilliance
and luster greater than nature could provide” (Curtis). Transmutation was a process for giving
perfection, and this was the ultimate and constant aim of alchemists throughout its existence.
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Scholars believe that alchemy was first practiced in China, beginning as early as the first
century. Chinese alchemy focused more on the health and immortality side of alchemy.
Alchemy in China was practiced mostly in order to purify an individual’s spirit and body and
attempting to gain immortality. Mixtures known as elixirs were consumed as a medicines to
treat illness, prolong life, and produce immortality. (Davis). Chinese alchemists were mostly
interested in creating the Elixir of Life (Benton). Another fact that makes Chinese alchemists
differ from alchemy of other cultures is the fact that immortality in Chinese cultures was not
always part of this world. Often, Chinese alchemists used their elixirs as a way of guaranteeing
that they would be granted an afterlife. Many of the transcribed texts of Chinese alchemists
show that the major components of the Elixir of Life were mercury, arsenic, and sulfur.
Ironically, most of these metals are volatile and poisonous in the human body. However, "there
seems to be little doubt however that some of these lethal preparations were taken with full
knowledge of their effects and that the subsequent death was a deliberate journey to the next
world in full faith of attaining immortality” (Davis). In addition, there were different rankings of
immortality that an alchemist could achieve. The ranking of immortality could be distinguished
by observing the corpse after the individual had died. If the corpse had a sweet smell to it a short
time after death, then it was said that the person did indeed reach immortality in the afterlife.
The most sought after form of immorality was known as shih chieh hsien, which translates to
“corpse free immortal” (Davis). In this case, the corpse disappears after death, leaving only the
clothes of the deceased in place of the corpse. This was the highest form of immortality because
it symbolized that the person has no more connections with this world and is completely
engulfed in immortality of the afterlife. It is believed that an adept named Ko Hung was able to
achieve this form of immortality because his body could not be located after his death (Davis).
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Alchemy played a role in the view of immortality and the afterlife to some different groups of
people in China.
For the most part, alchemy was supported in China, especially by the emperors. For
example, in 1567, Jiajing Emperor died from ingesting a large, lethal quantity of a potion that
consisted heavily of mercury (Davis). It is believed by scholars that Jiajing Emperor was
searching for a way to become immortal through alchemy and believed he was drinking the
Elixir of Life. In fact, historians believe that many emperors were interested in alchemy and the
ability to be immortal and free of disease until the rise of Buddhism, which claimed to have other
ways of achieving immortality (Davis). Thus, alchemy was fairly supported in China.
Other interesting aspects of Chinese alchemy that can still be seen today include yoga and
the concept of yin and yang. Yoga was a meditative practice that was used by alchemists in
order to obtain a physical, mental, and spiritual balance (Davis). It was believed that having a
balance was needed in order to perform alchemy correctly. Just as the alchemist needed balance,
the substances that were used in alchemical processes needed balance. This belief also embodied
another important concept that arose with alchemy. The belief of yin and yang was used in
alchemy to balance out the reactants of alchemy. It was thought that each metal had a specific
gender, and in order for a reaction to complete, there must have been a balance of these metals.
For instance, in order to have copper, which was considered a female element, react, alchemists
must have used a male metal, such as iron (Davis). Also, there were elemental associations with
each reactant in Chinese alchemy. These elements included water, fire, earth, air, and metal.
Each elemental reactant had to be used carefully because there had to be a balance in elemental
features, as well as gender, in order for alchemy to occur (Davis). Chinese alchemy produced
many of features of culture that we can still see today.
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Alchemy quickly spread out of China, through the Middle East, and into Europe. It is
believed that alchemy made its appearance in Europe with the publication of translated version
of the Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy (“History…”) in the twelfth century. Spain is
considered to be the country where European alchemy was first practiced. European alchemy
differs from Chinese alchemy in that early European alchemists really focused on the process of
turning base metals into gold. Alchemy was accepted early on by many different European
powers. European alchemists were often funded and supported by monarchs and high ranking
individuals because they sought out an endless supply of gold through the processes of alchemy
(“History…”). For the most part, alchemists in Europe used Latin as a language to record and
discuss alchemy. New vocabulary for European alchemy was also established in order to keep
alchemy a secret from other people who were not alchemists. For example, the word elixir did
not appear until the seventh century A.D., when alchemists were describing the Elixir of Life.
Elixir derives from an Arabic word that means “miracle substance” (“History…”). Alchemists
used symbols as a way to keep their experiments a secret because they “were conscious of the
huge potential of their discipline and did not want uneducated people to read and understand
their recipes, or make improper uses of their findings” (Fabbrizzi).
By the 14th century, alchemy shifted from an incredibly secretive practice to basic public
knowledge in Europe. This increased accessibility caused a large number of people to seek out
and attempt to practice alchemy. This public accessibility was a major detriment to alchemy
because alchemical frauds began to appear in Europe. One notable fraud in alchemy was
Cagliostro. His real name was Guiseppe Balsoma. Most alchemists used a pseudonym in order
to protect their identity. The use of aliases was needed to protect alchemists either from having
their alchemy secrets taken from them or to protect them from individuals who viewed them as
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frauds (Curtis). Cagliostro was an example of why the public view of alchemy began to decline.
He claimed to have extraordinary powers of hypnotism and telepathy because of alchemy. He
would give false prophecies and convince people that he could perform wonderful deeds for
them via alchemy for a payment. Cagliostro was soon labeled as the “greatest mystic and
imposter of all time” (Curtis). It is also believed that Cagliostro had association with the occult
and demon worshipping, so growing fears of the occult with alchemy only became stronger as
Cagliostro became more known (Curtis). This growing fear of magic and the occult lead toward
a negative image of alchemy in Europe. Individuals who were identified as alchemists were
imprisoned or faced major public persecution. Thus, the popularity of alchemy and the people
associated with it diminished greatly.
The decline of alchemy was caused by multiple factors. First, an occult movement began
to spread through Europe (Newman). This fear of the occult began to affect the way that
alchemists were viewed by society. Many alchemists, especially European alchemists, were
considered be part of the occult or used evil magic, such as conjuring demons and spirits, in
order to perform their alchemy. Many individuals who claimed to have completed an alchemical
project were often imprisoned under the charge of witchcraft or devil worshipping. For example,
Roger Bacon, who was a very prominent alchemist in England, was perceived as communicating
with demons. His reputation went from a renowned and celebrated alchemist to a fraudulent
magician. Due to a large influence by the church, his writings were discredited and rejected,
even by the alchemists within the same order as Bacon (Newman). Alchemy soon had more
relations with spirituality and religion than it did as a science. Also, the rise of chemistry from
alchemical experiments caused a rift between alchemists and the new chemists. During
Enlightenment, people began to claim alchemy as a pseudoscience, favoring the new study of
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chemistry (Newman). Alchemists became known as frauds and their credibility was questioned
by many individuals in the European population. Ultimately, alchemy became a memory for
most and is now seen as an experience associated with magic.
Along with the history of alchemy, it is important to discuss notable alchemists that have
contributed much to the process of alchemy and, by extension, the science of chemistry. One of
these prominent alchemists is Geber. His real name was Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan and was
born in 721 in the Middle East. One of Geber’s major contribution to alchemy was his
thoroughness in note taking. He advocated for very well taken notes during alchemical
processes in order have a uniform way of discussing his practices with other alchemists. This
allowed for him to begin a record of what was actually occurring during his alchemy. In
addition, this thorough note taking allowed Geber be able to repeat his experiments in order to
validate his findings of a previous experiment. This played an incredible role in the evolution of
Rialchemy to chemistry and other modern sciences (Gaw). In science today, it is critical to have
well taken notes in order to establish credible evidence and allow the experiment to be repeated.
If an experiment cannot be repeated, then it is often disregarded. Geber’s contributions to
alchemy not only transformed alchemy, but it also shaped how modern sciences would function
in the future.
Probably one of the most renowned alchemists is Paracelsus. His real name was Phillipus
Aurelous Theopharatus Paracelsus Bombastus von Hoenheim. Paracelsus was a Swiss-German
man born in 1493. Paracelsus was an alchemist, but unlike many other alchemists in Europe at
the time that focused on making gold from other metals, he focused on health in his alchemy.
His father was a physician, so he grew up surrounded by the medical practices of the time. As he
aged, he began to take in interest in medicine, as well as alchemy. He is accredited with
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developing and the formation of the discipline of toxicology. He pioneered the use of chemicals
and minerals in his medicinal experiments. He also had a different view of medicine and disease
than others of his time. His interest in alchemy led him to come up with a theory as to why
sickness occurred. He thought that diseases were caused by “poisons” that originated from the
stars (“Paracelsus”). However, he did not define these poisons as we do today. Some of these
poisons that came from the universe helped cleanse of us disease. He was a firm believer in the
concept of poison driving out poison, and he believed that these poisons could help alleviate
sickness (“Paracelsus”). As other alchemists in China did, Paracelsus did use some substances
that can be harmful in large doses in his medical practices. However, Paracelsus did not use
these in large quantities as the Chinese alchemists did. Paracelsus made the statement, “The
dose makes the poison” (“Paracelsus”). To him, this meant that substances that were harmful
could be useful in small doses, and the harmless substances could be fatal if used in too large of
quantities. Paracelsus used herbs that were poisonous. However, through his experimentation, he
found the appropriate amount that caused the herb to not only become harmless, but it actually
would cure certain diseases and aliments (“Paracelsus”). Also, Paracelsus was a forerunner in
the experimentation of different substances of the body. Through his research, he was able to
come up with medical practices such as using opioids in a way to allow his patients to be
anesthetized. Also, he was contributed with one of the first uses antiseptics during his
procedures (“Paracelsus”). Both of these practices are incredibly important in the medical field
today. Paracelsus did not only work in the physiological side of medicine, but he also had
hypotheses concerning the psychological aspects of the medical field. He is credited with
providing the first scientific use of the concepts of unconscious (“Paracelsus). Paracelsus was an
alchemist that was a major contributor to the practices of not only alchemical studies, but also
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modern sciences such as toxicology, physiology, and psychoanalysis.
Though alchemy differed from science in the fact that it includes practices related to
mythology, magic, and religion, it played a significant role in the development of modern
sciences. Alchemists were essentially practitioners, mainly concerned with producing new
substances or devising new procedures for preparing precious materials at low cost. According to
some scholars, alchemists “were not interested in or capable of establishing theories for the
rationalization and explanation of the many experiments described. The time was not yet ripe:
the quantitative investigation of nature was still distant, and, it seemed, everything had been said
already and organized clearly” (Fabbrizzi). Thus, alchemists set the stage for scientific
investigation in terms of forming theories and ideas based on explanations as to why their
reactions occurred. Alchemy began its evolution into chemistry as new technologies and
processes became prevalent in laboratories. For instance, the invention of the precision balance
allowed for alchemical studies to become very quantitative in nature. For example, John Dalton
noticed a pattern seemed to arise in the alchemical processes. After thinking of different ideas as
to why these reactions occurred, he came up with his now famous atomic theory. The atomic
theory states that there are a defined number of elements, elements are made of tiny particles
called atoms, and that atoms of one element are able to combine with atoms of another element
to form a compound (Fabbrizzi). Dalton’s hypothesis became one of the founding theories in the
study of chemistry. Also, with the ability to track how a reaction is proceeding, another major
theory came into light. Antoine Lavoisier saw that the number of atoms that were placed in the
reaction vessel of an alchemical or chemical reaction always equaled the number atoms that
appeared as a product of the reaction. This theory would become one of the most important laws
that exist in chemistry, which is the Law of Conservation of Mass. The Law of Conversation of
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Mass states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can be rearranged. Both the
theory and the law that are stated above show that alchemy provided early scientists the
observations and evidence on which they were able to formulate ideas as to why processes seen
in alchemy occurred in the way that they did.
Alchemy helped form the scientific investigation procedures and processes that are
recognizable in science today. First, alchemy was a predecessor of the study of chemistry.
Alchemical laboratories contained many of the types of equipment that can been seen in any
basic chemistry lab now. For example, furnaces were seen in many of the labs used in alchemy
in order to help their experiments go forward (Fabbrizzi). Similarly, chemistry labs today have
many sources of heat because it is now known that by increasing the temperature at which a
reaction occurs causes the reaction to proceed quicker than the reaction the room temperature.
Another process that comes from alchemy that is used quite frequently in chemistry labs is
extraction. Alchemists used extraction as a way of separating metals from other components that
can surround them. Modern chemists can use extraction in a similar means through extracting
metals from ores, but also in ways that can extract chemicals from each other when they are in
the same solution. For example, organic chemists often have to separate the organic compounds
that are produced in their reactions (Fabbrizzi). Many of the processes that an organic chemist
would use are very similar to the way an alchemist would separate metals from ore. Also,
alchemy has structured the basis for nuclear chemistry. Nuclear chemistry is the branch of
chemistry that focuses on how the nucleus of an atom reacts with its surroundings (McMurry).
Interestingly, through nuclear chemistry, scientists have actually been able to create what the
alchemists set out to do. Nuclear chemists have been able to convert other metals into gold. For
example, by shooting an electron, a negatively charged subatomic particle, at an atom of
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mercury, gold will be the product (McMurry). Even though the gold that is produced is
radioactive and expensive, and it is difficult to perform this process, chemists have achieved
what alchemists searched for during their time.
Another way that alchemy relates to chemistry is the use of symbols in note taking and
records of experiments and procedures. Symbols were used as time and space saving devices
during experimental note taking (Curtis). This is very similar to many scientific notes that are
taken with the use of many symbols. This is especially true in the study of chemistry. Instead of
writing out the entire name of a compound, chemists use drawings of the molecule in order save
time. In addition, the periodic table of elements, one of the major features of chemistry, arose
from the use of symbols in alchemical experiments. The use of symbols was very prevalent in
alchemy, showing the modern chemistry did arise from earlier alchemical practices. Many of the
practices seen in alchemy can also be observed in modern day chemistry, showing the alchemy
did help in the foundation of modern sciences, such as chemistry.
Not only did chemistry evolved from alchemy, but medicinal studies also arose from the
practices of alchemy. Many of the first medical studies have origins in the creation of the Elixir
of Life. As alchemists attempted to create this elixir, they studied the effects of different metals,
plants, and herbs on the body. This started the branch of science known as pharmacology, which
is the study of how drugs and medicines affect the body. The practices that alchemists, such as
Paracelsus and the alchemists from China, used to extract medical properties from chemicals
found in plants are similar to how researchers attempt to find drugs from plants today
(Fabbrizzi). For example, many cancer treating drugs can be obtained from plants located in the
tropics. Scientist working with these plants use the same techniques that alchemists would use
in their own experiments. Also, scientists now know the benefit and the harms that are
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associated with the use of metals as a medication (Fabrizzi). Much of this research came from
research notes of alchemists. Alchemy was a driving force in the formation of studying
medication today.
Alchemy is a process that normally evokes a mystical quality when it is brought into
conversation. Even though it is heavily associated with magic, alchemy can be considered a
major contributor to the formation of modern day sciences, such as chemistry and pharmacology.
Procedures such as experimentation and extensive note taking began with alchemy and now are
the founding principles in the study of sciences. The contributions of the great alchemists have
led to major breakthroughs in both alchemical and scientific studies. The practices that began in
the age of the alchemists shaped how science is done today.
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Works Cited
Benton, W. W. “The Elixir of Life.” The Hexagon, Vol. 28, No. 2 (November 1938), pp. 9092. 17 November 2014.
Cockren, A. “History of Alchemy.” Alchemy Lab. N.p., 1940. 17 November 2014.
Cockren, A. “Paracelsus.” Alchemy Lab. N.p., 1940. 18 November 2014.
Curtis, Harry. “Alchemy.” The Hexagon, Vol. 33, No. 8 (May 1943), pp. 86-90. 17
November 2014.
Davis, Tenney L., and Lu-Ch'iang Wu. "Chinese Alchemy". In The Scientific Monthly,
American Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Sep., 1930),
pp. 225–235. 17 November 2014.
Fabbrizzi, Luigi. "Communicating About Matter With Symbols: Evolving From Alchemy To
Chemistry." Journal of Chemical Education 85.11 (2008): 1501-1511. ERIC. Web.
17 November 2014
Gaw, Harold P. “Geber . . . His Life and Works.” The Hexagon, Vol. 28, No. 8 (January
1938), pp. 98-101. 17 November 2014.
McMurry, et al. “Chemistry.” Pearson, Sixth Edition, 2012.
Newman, William R. "Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy". Secrets of Nature,
Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe. MIT Press. pp. 385–432. 17 November 2014