Chapter 9
Constructivist
Learning
Theory,
Problem
Solving,
and Transfer
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Overview
• Meaningful learning within a
constructivist framework
• The nature of problem solving
• Transfer of learning
• Technology tools for knowledge
construction and problem solving
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9–2
An early constructivist perspective
• Jerome Bruner—Discovery Learning
• Confronting students with problems that
they seek solutions for either
independently or in small groups
• Active construction
• Meaningful learning
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9–3
Facets of constructivism
• Meaningful learning is the active creation of
knowledge structures from personal
experience
• The essence of one person’s knowledge can
never be totally transferred to another person
because knowledge is the result of a personal
interpretation of experience
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9–4
Facets of constructivism (cont’d)
• Individuals make observations, test
hypotheses, and draw conclusions that are
largely consistent with one another
• Additions to, deletions from, or modifications
to knowledge structures come mainly from
the sharing of multiple perspectives
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9–5
Constructivism today
• Two variations on a constructivist theme
– Cognitive constructivism—emphasizes the
development of meaningful learning by
focusing on the cognitive processes that
take place within individuals
– Social constructivism—emphasizes the
development of meaningful learning by
focusing on culture and social interactions
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9–6
Conditions that foster constructivism
• Cognitive apprenticeship
– Teachers modeling cognitive processes that students
eventually take responsibility for as they become
more skilled
• Situated learning
– Giving learning tasks situated in realistic contexts
• Multiple perspectives
– Students should have the opportunity to view ideas and
problems from multiple ways
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9–7
Limitations of constructivism
• It is almost impossible to create highly
detailed lesson plans because so much
variation is possible
• Teaching from a constructivist perspective is
more time consuming and places higher
demands on learners as compared to a
typical lecture format
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9–8
Limitations of constructivism (cont’d)
• Recognize that students construct their own
interpretations of things regardless of whether
you teach from a constructivist perspective
• Constructivism is not the only orientation to
learning that you will ever need
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9–9
Using a constructivist approach
to meaningful learning
• Arrange the learning situation so that
students are exposed to different
perspectives of a problem or an issue
• Structure discussions by posting a specific
question; by presenting a provocative, topicrelated issue; or by asking students to choose
topics or subtopics
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9–10
Using a constructivist approach
to meaningful learning (cont’d)
• If time is limited and if only one topic is to be
covered, ask students to form a circle and
have an all-class discussion
• If abundant time is available and if a
controversial or subdivided topic to be
discussed, divide the class into groups of five
or so and arrange for each member of each
group to have eye contact with every other
group member
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9–11
Three common types of problems
• Well-structured problems
– Clearly formulated, solved by specific procedure, solution
evaluated against agreed-upon standard
• Ill-structured problems
– Complex, few clues to solution procedures, less-definite
criteria for measuring solution
• Issues
– Ill-structured problems that arouse strong feelings
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9–12
Five step approach to problem solving
•
•
•
•
•
Realize that a problem exists
Understand the nature of the problem
Compile relevant information
Formulate and carry out a solution
Evaluate the solution
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9–13
Heuristics
•
•
•
•
•
•
Study worked examples
Work on a simpler version of the problem
Break the problem into parts
Work backward
Solve an analogous problem
Create an external representation
of the problem
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9–14
Systematic framework for evaluation
• Ask and answer a set of basic questions
(who, what, where, when, how)
• Identify imperfections and complications
• Anticipate possible negative reactions
from other people
• Devise improvements
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9–15
What is transfer of learning?
Transfer of learning is…
Students independently apply knowledge
and skills to similar but new information.
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9–16
Types of transfer
• Positive transfer
– A situation in which prior learning aids subsequent
learning.
• Negative transfer
– A situation in which prior learning interferes with
subsequent learning
• Zero transfer
– A situation in which prior learning has no effect
on new learning
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9–17
Types of transfer (cont’d)
• Specific transfer
– Situation in which prior learning aids
subsequent learning because of specific
similarities between two tasks
• General transfer
– Situation in which prior learning aids
subsequent learning due to the use of
similar cognitive strategies
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9–18
Types of transfer (cont’d)
• Low-road transfer
– Situation in which a previously learned skill
or idea is almost automatically retrieved
from memory and applied to a highly
similar current task
• High-road transfer
– Situation involving the conscious, controlled,
somewhat effortful formulation of an “abstraction”
that allows a connection to be made between two
tasks
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9–19
Teaching for low-road
and high-road transfer
• Provide students with multiple opportunities for varied
practice to help them develop a rich web of
interrelated concepts
• Give students opportunities to solve problems that
are similar to those they will eventually have to solve
• Teach students how to formulate for a variety of tasks
general rules, strategies, or schemes that can be
used in the future with a variety of similar problems
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9–20
Teaching for low-road
and high-road transfer
• Give students cues that will allow them to retrieve
from memory earlier -learned information that can be
used to make current learning easier
• Teach students to focus on the beneficial effects of
creating and using rules and strategies to solve
particular kinds of problems
(Anderson, Reder, & Simon, 1996; Cox, 1997; Halpern, 1998; Salomon & Perkins, 1989)
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9–21
Technology tools for knowledge
construction and problem solving
• HyperAuthor
• Computer-supported intentional learning
environments
• Learning through collaborative visualization
• E-mail exchange programs
• Jasper Woodbury and anchored instruction
• Constructivist-oriented web sites
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9–22
End of
Chapter 9
Constructivist
Learning
Theory,
Problem
Solving,
and Transfer