Time magazine: Person of the year
The individual who has had the
biggest effect on the year's news
Person of the Year
 Guess who the Time “Person
of the Year” is this year?
 This reflects the tendency for
people to be increasingly selffocused:
YouTube slogan: "Broadcast
yourself"
Social networking sites: e.g.
MySpace
iPods  your own little world of
music
Cell phones  no need to share
anymore
Blogs  strangers reading other
people’s diaries
Egos inflating:
Rising narcissism and its implications for
self-construal, cognitive style, and behavior
Sara Konrath
PhD Candidate, Social Psychology
University of Michigan
Acknowledgments
Thanks to:
Dr. Defeldre and members of the Affect, Decision
Making & Social Regulation Lab
dissertation committee members Brad Bushman,
Norbert Schwarz, David Winter, and Katherine Burson
collaborators Keith Campbell, Jean Twenge, and
Joshua Foster
Also thanks to research assistants who helped me
run these studies
Summary of dissertation research
Narcissism is rising in college students over time
Narcissists are particularly likely to aggress
when a ‘different’ other criticizes them
Unfortunately, their natural tendency is to focus
on differences between themselves and others
Creating similarities reduces narcissistic
aggression
Outline
Introduction
1. Rising narcissism
2. Self-construal and cognitive style
3. Reducing narcissistic aggression
Conclusions and future directions
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
 Narcissistic Personality Disorder (DSM-IV)
 Begins in early adulthood
 5 of the following 9 criteria present in a variety of contexts :









a lack of empathy
a grandiose sense of self-importance
fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, or beauty
belief that one is special and unique
the need for excessive admiration
interpersonal exploitation
envy of others and a belief that others envy them
arrogant, haughty behaviors or attitudes
a sense of entitlement
 Prevalence:
lifetime prevalence, 0.5-1% (higher in clinical settings)
more common in men than women (75% diagnosed are male)
Sub-clinical Narcissism
Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI)
40 items forced choice; most widely used scale
7 subscales: authority, self-sufficiency, superiority,
exhibitionism, exploitation, vanity, entitlement
Portrait of a narcissist (personality trait)
Self: self-enhancing, low in depression & anxiety, creative,
extraverted, high self-esteem, love competition, sensationseeking, materialistic
Others: take more in resource dilemma games, lack of
empathy, romantic game-players, others dislike them in
prolonged interactions, aggressive when criticized
Sum:
few intrapersonal negatives associated with narcissism
many interpersonal negatives
Outline
Introduction
1. Rising narcissism
2. Self-construal and cognitive style
3. Reducing narcissistic aggression
Conclusions and future directions
Is narcissism rising over time?
We used the method of cross-temporal meta-analysis
to examine narcissism scores in American college
students over time
facebook
examples
2000 ‘friends’
130 photos of self
350 ‘friends’
300 photos of self
(Twenge, Konrath, Foster, Campbell, & Bushman, under revision)
Past Research:
Previous cross-temporal meta-analyses have found a
rise in individualistic traits on Bem Sex Roles Inventory
independent, individualistic, leadership ability
Increasing scores on Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
from 1960s  1990s
self-esteem correlated with narcissism
MMPI: “I am an important person”
1950s: 12% agreement; late 1980s: 80% agreement
Recent cross-sectional study found younger people
more narcissistic than older people
developmental changes or generational differences?
(Twenge, 1997; Twenge & Campbell, 2001; Newsom et al, 2003; Foster et al, 2003)
Methods
Literature search
Web of knowledge, unpublished data (SPSP listserve)
Inclusion rules
Undergrads at conventional 4-year colleges
Attending college in United States
Mixed sex (not more than 80% of one or the other)
Unselected students
e.g. not chosen for scoring high/low on another measure, not clinical
patients, etc.
40-item forced-choice version of NPI
most reliable and most widely used
need comparable means
high scores indicate higher narcissism
Final sample & Data analysis
85 samples of American college students
N=16,475 (6,616 Male, 9,859 Female)
Correlation between NPI and year of data
collection
weighted by sample size
also weighted by the inverse of the variance (w),
which takes into account sample standard deviation
this was not always available, so we more often relied on
the sample size only
Results: Narcissism increasing
Weighted by sample size:
b = .53, p < .001, k=85
Weighted by inverse variance:
b = .50, p < .001, k=76
Results: Narcissism increasing
average celebrity score, 2006
NPI
scores
increased
.33
standard
deviations
from 19822006
Discussion
American college students score increasingly higher in
narcissism since the 1980s
Possible causes (speculation)
Parenting?
permissive parenting linked with
narcissism scores
Schools?
self-esteem movement
grade inflation
Media?
reality tv
social networking sites: MySpace, Facebook
advertising? e.g. “have it your way”
(Stout, 2000; Sykes, 1995; Horton et al, 2006; Watson et al, 1992)
Potential Implications
generation of people who may have difficulty sustaining
relationships & thinking of others
materialism, poor resource sharing
e.g. “being well off financially” important goal in life: 45% American
college freshman 1967  74% 2004
poor impulse control, risky behavior
e.g. gambling increased by 50% 1970s-late 1990s
e.g. trying drugs: 41% high school seniors 1992  51% 2004
e.g. regular drug use: 14% 1992  23% 2004
aggression?
violent crime rate down in US; what about everyday aggression?
no information on entitlement only
(Glenn & Marquardt, 2001; Astin et al, 2004; Shaffer et al, 1999; Bachman et al, 2005)
Limitations & Conclusions
limited to American college students
is narcissism also increasing in other countries?
in older adults? children?
in less educated and/or less affluent groups?
could not present subscale analysis
e.g. entitlement predicts aggression
conclusion
narcissism is rising in American college students
however, it is possible that this trend could change (e.g.
another Great Depression)
Outline
Introduction
1. Rising narcissism
2. Self-construal and cognitive style
3. Reducing narcissistic aggression
Conclusions and future directions
1. Self-construal
Two ways of thinking about the self:
Independent
Self-Construal
personal self
•beliefs of separateness &
uniqueness from others
•personal abilities & traits
•accomplishments
prevalent in
individualistic cultures
(Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Singelis, 1994)
Interdependent
Self-Construal
relational self
•feelings of connection & unity
•social harmony
•consideration for others
•follow group norms
prevalent in
collectivistic cultures
Narcissism & Self-Construal
 No studies directly examine the relationship between
narcissism & self-construal, but there is indirect evidence:
people from individualistic cultures are more narcissistic than those from
collectivistic cultures (Foster et al., 2003)
narcissists and individualists both self-enhance (Paulhus & John, 1998; Campbell, et al., 2002; Ladd et
al., 1997; Stucke, 2003; Sedikides et al., 2003)
especially on agentic traits
both make self-serving attributions (Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Rhodewald & Morf, 1995; McAllister et al., 2002;
Anderson, 1999)
failure = situation
success = me
both use more 1st person pronouns (Raskin & Shaw, 1988; Kashima & Kashima, 1998)
both score higher in extraversion (Raskin & Hall, 1981; Emmons, 1984; McCrae et al., 1997; Shiota et al., 1996)
men score higher in narcissism and individualism (Caroll, 1987; Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998;
Cross & Madson, 1997)
 We have found that narcissism is positively associated with independent
self-construal and negatively associated with interdependent selfconstrual
(Konrath, Bushman, & Grove, in preparation)
2. Cognitive Style: Field dependence / independence
Two types of cognitive styles:
1) Field independent (analytic): objects in one’s environment
are experienced as separate & distinct from their
surroundings; thus they can easily be disembedded from
their context
2) Field dependent (holistic): one’s environment is
experienced as a unity of objects; an emphasis on the
holistic intermingling of parts
Can be measured with the
Embedded Figures Test (EFT)
(Witkin et al., 1971)

Self-Construal, Narcissism & Cognitive Style
 Self-construal & cognitive style:
 People with independent self-construals (manipulated or chronic)
perform better on tests of field independence
 requires a cognitive style that can disembed information from its context
 Narcissism & cognitive style:
 We expect narcissists to have an analytic cognitive style because:
 there are similarities between the self & identity processes of narcissists &
individualists AND individualism is associated with a more analytic cognitive
style (Nisbett et al., 2001)
 As predicted, we find that narcissists have an analytic cognitive
style, that is, they score higher than non-narcissists on the
Embedded Figures Test and score lower on a personality test of
holism
(Ji, Peng, & Nisbett, 2000; Kuhnen, Hannover, & Schubert, 2001; Kuhnen, Hannover, Roder, Schubert, Shah, &
Zakaria, 2001; Oyserman, Sorensen, Cha, & Schwarz, 2006)
Limitations & Conclusions
 Limitations:
As with any correlational study, the direction of causation is problematic:
e.g. Narcissism  Independent Self-Construal?
Independent Self-Construal  Narcissism?
3rd variable leads to both? e.g. self-aggrandizing parenting
 Future research would help us further understand the associations
between narcissism, self-construal, and cognitive style
 Conclusions:
1) Narcissism is related to more independence and less interdependence
of self-construal
2) Narcissists’ feelings of being unique and separate from others also
extend to their cognitive style
they view the objects in their environment as distinct and easily
separable from their context
Outline
Introduction
1. Rising narcissism
2. Self-construal and cognitive style
3. Reducing narcissistic aggression
Conclusions and future directions
Self-esteem and aggression
Lay theory that low self-esteem causes many
societal problems, including aggression
People act aggressively toward others
because they secretly hate themselves
But… think about the most aggressive
person you know…
People with low self-esteem:
Easily swayed and influenced by others
Uncertain of self
Tend to give up easily
Shy, modest, hesitant, passive
Avoid risk
Don’t call attention to self
Protect self rather than enhance self
Does this sound like the most aggressive
person you know?
Aggressive people
Benito Mussolini &
Adolf Hitler
Saddam
Hussein
Hitler’s desire
for adoration
Saddam Hussein proudly looking over
examples of "Allowable Art" in Iraq.
Narcissists can be aggressive
It is now well established that narcissists
become aggressive when criticized or
rejected by others (e.g. Baumeister et al, 1996)
Favorable
view of self
･ unstable
･ inflated
･ uncertain
e.g. student – “I deserve an A+”
Discrepancy
between
internal and
external
appraisals
Threatened
egotism
Negative
evaluation
by other(s)
e.g. teacher – “You deserve a B”
Choice point
Reject appraisal
Maintain
self-appraisal
Accept appraisal
Lower
self-appraisal
Negative emotions
toward source of
threat
Negative emotions
toward self
Aggression or
violence
Withdrawal
Gendeal Aggression Model, Baumeister et al. (1996)
Narcissistic aggression after ego threat:
After being rejected by his girlfriend, Luke Woodham
killed her, her friend, his mother, and wounded 7
others. Three psychologists diagnosed him as a
narcissist.
Narcissistic
Quotation from Columbine Killer
Personality Inventory
Item (Raskin & Terry, 1988)
I insist upon getting the “Isn’t it fun to get the respect that we’re going to
respect that is due me. deserve?”
— Eric Harris
I wish someone would
someday write my
biography.
“Directors will be fighting over this story.”
— Dylan Klebold
“Tarentino ... Spielberg.”
— Eric Harris
I can make anyone
“I could convince them that I’m going to climb
believe anything I want Mount Everest, or I have a twin brother growing
them to.
out of my back. I can make you believe
anything.”
— Eric Harris
Twenge & Campbell (2003)
Reducing Narcissistic Aggression
Minimize positivity of self?
e.g. try to make narcissists believe that they are
less intelligent
will be seen as ego threat  aggression
Minimize ego threats?
not realistic
Reducing Narcissistic Aggression
Increase the perceived similarity between the
narcissist and the ego-threatener?
It mitigates the lack of interpersonal
connection that makes aggression possible
Creates a ‘unit-relation’; sense of belonging
together based on certain attributes (Heider, 1958)
It also capitalizes on narcissists' weakness
(i.e. self-love)
If a person is similar to themselves, narcissists
may be more willing to accept negative
information and less likely to aggress
Reducing Narcissistic Aggression
Overview of typical narcissism-aggression
study:
Complete personality measures on web
Told that they will be working with a “partner”
Complete essay about controversial topic in
lab
“Partner” gives them negative feedback
Given chance to aggress
Konrath, Bushman, & Campbell (2006)
Reducing Narcissistic Aggression
Overview of the current studies:
Complete personality measures on web
Told that they will be working with a “partner”
Similarity to self manipulation (vs. control
group)
Complete essay about controversial topic in
lab
“Partner” gives them negative feedback
Given chance to aggress
Konrath, Bushman, & Campbell (2006) Psychological Science.
Part A: Personality Measures Online
1) Narcissism Personality Inventory (Raskin & Terry, 1988)
 Most important predictor of aggression is entitlement subscale
(forced-choice):



I insist upon getting the respect that is due me
I usually get the respect I deserve
I have a strong will to power
Power for its own sake doesn’t interest me
If I ruled the world it would be a much better place
The thought of ruling the world frightens the hell out of me
2) Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965)
 Self-esteem does not independently predict aggression; we
include as control
 10-item scale:



I feel that I have a number of good qualities
I am able to do things as well as most people
I take a positive attitude toward myself
Study 1: Methods
Told study was about first impressions
Complete a number of tasks to form impression
of same-sex partner in other room
Given demographic information card about
other subject:
Same birthday as them or
Different birthday from them
Study 1: Similarity to self manipulation
 Share same birthday
Sharing a birthday makes people less competitive
and more cooperative in prisoners’ dilemma games
(Miller, Downs, & Prentice, 1998).
People are also more likely to comply with a
request if they share a birthday (Burger et al., 2004)
People even like Rasputin (the
notorious Russian monk) more if they
are told they share his birthday
(Finch & Cialdini, 1989).
Study 1: Methods
Write an essay about abortion
Evaluate “partner’s” essay and “partner”
evaluates participant’s essay
Receive critical feedback from partner
Item
Ego Threat
Organization
Originality
Writing style
Clarity of expression
Persuasive arguments
Overall rating
Comment:
-10
-9
-9
-8
-9
-9
One of the
worst essays
I’ve read!
Dependent measure: Aggression
Computerized reaction time game in which
participants can blast their partner with white
noise in increments from 0-105 decibels
participants test out sound meter first
DV = Average of 25 trials
Regression analysis
Will present split into high and low narcissism
Manipulation check
People in same birthday condition perceive more
similarity between themselves and their partner
Aggression toward partner
Low narcissism
High narcissism
0.8
0.4
(standardized)
Aggression
0.6
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
Same
Different
Birthday
Konrath, Bushman & Campbell (2006) Study 1
Aggression toward partner
Low narcissism
High narcissism
0.8
*
0.4
(standardized)
Aggression
0.6
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
Same
Different
Birthday
Konrath, Bushman & Campbell (2006) Study 1
Study 2: Methods
Methods very similar to Study 1, except new
similarity manipulation. Before writing essay,
subjects fingerprinted & randomly assigned to:
Rare fingerprint type
“You both have Type E fingerprints. That’s very rare! Only
about 2% of the population has Type E fingerprints.”
Common fingerprint type
“You both have Type E fingerprints. Of course, that’s not
too surprising. About 80% of the population has Type E
fingerprints.”
Control  no feedback on fingerprints
Study 2: Similarity to self manipulation
Share same fingerprints
Knowledge of a shared fingerprint type
makes individuals more compliant to the
requests of others (Burger, Messian, Patel, del
Prado, & Anderson, 2004).
Study 2: Manipulation check
Unit-relation
average of perceived partner similarity to self,
liking of partner, feeling connected (a=.78)
4.10
4.00
a
a
3.90
3.80
3.70
3.60
b
3.50
3.40
3.30
3.20
Rare
Commom
Control
Aggression toward partner
Low narcissism
High narcissism
0.8
(standardized)
Aggression
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
Rare
Common
Control
Fingerprint Type
Konrath, Bushman & Campbell (2006) Study 2
Aggression toward partner
Low narcissism
High narcissism
0.8
*
(standardized)
Aggression
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
Rare
Common
Control
Fingerprint Type
Konrath, Bushman & Campbell (2006) Study 2
Aggression toward partner
Low narcissism
High narcissism
0.8
(standardized)
Aggression
0.6
*
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
Rare
Common
Control
Fingerprint Type
Konrath, Bushman & Campbell (2006) Study 2
Conclusion
Aggression can be reduced in narcissists by
making them think they share a key
characteristic with potential targets of
aggression
creates a ‘unit-relation’ that bridges
disconnected social style of narcissists
Outline
Introduction
1. Rising narcissism
2. Self-construal and cognitive style
3. Reducing narcissistic aggression
Conclusions and future directions
Conclusions
Narcissism is rising in college students over time
Narcissists are particularly likely to aggress
when a ‘different’ other criticizes them
Unfortunately, their natural tendency is to focus
on differences between themselves and others
Independent self-construal  unique, separate from
others
Cognitive style  disconnected
Creating similarities reduces narcissistic
aggression
Future directions: Decision making?
 Program 3.1: context manipulations of self-other similarity to
reduce or magnify empathy gap
 Program 3.2: impact of situational and personality differences
on empathetic accuracy
 Situational/context manipulations
 birthday, fingerprint, same name, same town…
 I versus we
 think of similarities versus differences between self and other
 Personality traits, individual differences
 narcissism
 autism spectrum / aspergers
 theory of mind
 relationship of self and other, e.g. probably more accurate if more actual
psychological overlap
Questions or Comments?
changing college populations?
Enrollment
Gender
Race
SES
1985
2003-2004
58% of highschool students
64% of highschool students
53% female
57% female
African-American: 6%
Asian-American: 3%
Hispanic: 3%
African-American: 9%
Asian-American: 7%
Hispanic: 7%
virtually unchanged when
adjusting for inflation
Main Research Themes
Social cognition & the self
e.g. narcissism
Political psychology at individual level
e.g. political priming
e.g. red & blue election maps
Political psychology at societal level
e.g. ‘face-ism’ in politicians
e.g. anti-authoritarianism in music after threat