Chapter 6
Motivation
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
6-1
Motivation
The amount of effort that an individual
puts into doing something
 Two types of Motivation

–
Intrinsic Motivation
 Behavior
performed for its own sake (Motivation
comes from performing the work)
 Example:
–
jobs, being interesting as jobs
Extrinsic Motivation
 Behavior
performed to acquire rewards
(Motivation source is the consequence of an action)
 Example:
working just to receive money or
other rewards
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
6-4
Motivation
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are not
independent from each other
 Extrinsic motivation can move out
intrinsic motivation (internal satisfaction

can be swept out by material reward)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Motivation (Outcomes & Inputs)
–
–
–
Regardless of the source of motivation,
people seek outcomes (e.g.
accomplishment, autonomy, pay)
Organizations hire workers to obtain inputs
(e.g. skills, knowledge, work behavior)
Managers thus use outcomes to motivate
workers to provide inputs.
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Motivation Theories

Two types of motivation theories
– Content theories (focusing on what causes
people to put effort into work)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

– Process theories (focusing on how people
are putting forth efforts [what steps])
Reinforcement Theory
 Goal Setting Theory
 (Expectancy Theory)
 Equity Theory

Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Higher
Needs
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Basic
Needs
Affiliation
Safety
Physiological
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs





Physiological (basic requirements for survival:
air, food, water, sex drives)
Safety and Security (Shelter/ Protection from
outside threat [job security])
Affiliation (affection, friendship, belonging
[team work, company social events)
Esteem (respect, pos. regard, recognition from
others [praise for performance])
Self-Actualization (develop one‘s full potential
[meaningful work])
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
6-6
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Proposed order of needs does not
motivate everyone
 Circumstances can cause an individual
to returm to more basic needs level
 More than one need level important at
the same time
 Cultural values can influence ordering
and importance of needs (e.g.

collectivism: self-esteem and selfactualization can be irrelevant)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Key conclusion
– People differ in what needs they are trying
to satisfy at work
– In a global economy citizens form different
countries have different needs to be
satisfied through work
– As countries develop from lower to higher
standard of living need are likely to shift
(from basic needs to higher needs)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Herzberg: satisfaction and dissatisfaction
are two different dimensions (not opposite
ends of single dimension)
–
Satisfaction
 is achieved by motivator factors
(Aspects of the work itself (intrinsic) and how
challenging it is)
 Presence
of these factors satisfies and
motivates workers
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
– Dissatisfaction

is prevented by hygiene factors (Aspects outside
the work itself (extrinsic) influence workers‘ behavior)


These factors being absent, a worker feels
dissatisfied; being present brings a person (only)
to a neutral state
Which Job factors cause people to feel
satisfaction or experience dissatisfaction?
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Motivation Factors Hygiene Factors
– Company policy and
– Achievement
administration
– Recognition
– Supervision
– Interesting work
– Relationship with
– Responsibility
supervisor
– Advancement
– Work conditions
– Growth
– Pay
– Relationships with peers
– Security
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
6-7
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
Helps focus managers‘ attention on
distinction between intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation
 Helps to study how to design jobs more
intrinsically motivating

Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

Poeple‘s individual differences in motivation
is not that much influenced by instinctive
desires (as in Maslow‘s theory) but by learned
needs
– Need for Achievement (establishing/ maintaining
high level of performance)
– Individuals want personal responsibility for success/
failure (calculated risk, receive immediate feedback
on performance)
– strive for personal success (are often dynamic
entrepreneurs)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
6-8
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
– Need for Achievement (establishing/ maintaining
high level of performance)
– Tasks too easy or too difficult do not appeal to them
(they feel less responsibility for outcome)
– Are not concerned about achievement of others
(thus not necessarily making them good managers)
– Need for Power (concern for reputation, influence,
control over others)
 Individuals high on this need prefer leadership
positions and are rated effective leaders by others
 Individuals high on this need are usually good
performers and have above average attendance at
work
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
– Need for Affiliation (concern for social
relationships)
 Individuals prefer cooperative rather than
competitive situations

Improving the level of eed achievement
(among less economically successful countries
or groups) would encourage economic
development (of countries or groups)

Need for Achievement:individualistic need,
not easy applicable to grouporiented
cultures with lack of support for personal
achievement (Asia, Mexico)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Conclusions about Content Theories
Identify personal factors or needs related
to motivation
 Personal values differ across and within
cultures
 Theories not universal applicable to all
cultures

Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Answer These Questions to Determine Whether You
Score Highest on Need for Achievement, Need for
Affiliation, or Need for Power
•Do you like situations where you personally must find solutions to problems?
•Do you tend to set moderate goals and take moderate, thought-out risks?
•Do you want specific feedback about how well you are doing?
•Do you spend time considering how to advance your career, how to do your
job better, or how to accomplish something important?
If you answered yes, then you probably have a high need for achievement.
•Do you look for jobs or seek situations that provide an opportunity for social
relationships?
•Do you consider the feelings of others to be very important?
•Do you try to restore disrupted relationships when they occur?
If you answered yes, then you probably have a high need for affiliation.
•Do you try to influence and control others?
•Do you seek leadership positions in a group?
•Do you enjoy persuading others?
•Are you perceived by others as outspoken, forceful, and demanding?
If you answered yes, then you probably have a high need for power.
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Process Theories

Focus on (work) process rather than
content (makes them more applicable in
other countries)
– Reinforcement or Learning Theory
– Goal Setting Theory
– (Expectancy Theory)
– Equity Theory
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Reinforcement/ Learning Theory

People learn behavior as a function of its
consequences (rewarding/ ignoring a behavior
increases/ decreases likelihood that a behavior will
be repeated)
– Managers must know what is rewarding to
people they wish to motivate
– Efficient reward systems are different across
cultures (think of a reward system for a Japanese
subsidiary in a western country)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Reinforcement/ Learning Theory
– Reinforcing behavior not successfull

where people don‘t see connection: behavior –
consequences (e.g. Muslims believe what happens is
God‘s will)

Where rewards are based on relative status
(e.g. in South America everyone associated to a
successful performance receives a reward in relation to
his relative status)
– What people perceive as reward is subject
to cultural influence (e.g. praise, appreciation
motivate individuals in Southern Europe or Asia)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Reinforcement/ Learning Theory

People learn behavior as a function of
other‘s social behavior, they observe
(thoughts, beliefs, values and so forth)
– People are motivated to imitate other
individuals who are highly competent,
expert and receive attractive reinforcers
(called observational learning)
–
–
Poeple learn to control and reward their
own behavior (called self-reinforcement)
People can be motivated if they believe in
their ability to perform a task successfully
(called self-efficacy)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Goal Setting Theory

People are motivated by intentions to work
toward a goal they want to accomplish
–
Performance is increased
 When
goals are specific (quantitative) rather than
vague
 When goals are difficult (but achievable) rather than
easy to achieve
 When feedback is given on one‘s own output
 When workers are committed to the set goals
 When they participate in goal setting (although this is
no prerequsition)
self-efficacy ( belief in one‘s ability to accomplish a
task) is high
 When
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Goal Setting Theory

Culture can affect the goal setting process
– In low power distance countries (e.g. Israel)
participation in goal setting is stronger and
more important (people are more committed to
goals they participate in setting)
– In high power distance countries (e.g. USA)
employees commit to supervisor set goals
(direct participaton not necessary)
– In collective countries (e.g. China) self-efficacy is
low (due to relationships as basis to accomplish tasks
contrast to one‘s own belief in one‘s talents)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Equity Theory

Considers worker’s perceptions of the
fairness of work outcomes in proportion
to their inputs.
–
The Outcome/input ratio is compared by
worker with another person called a
referent (the referent is perceived as similar to
the worker)
–
Equity exists when a person perceives his/
her outcome/ input ratio to be equal to the
referent’s ratio
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Equity Theory

Inequity exists when worker’s outcome/input ratio is
not equal to referent.
–
–

Underpayment inequity: ratio is less than the referent.
Worker feels they are not getting the outcomes they should
given inputs.
Overpayment inequity: ratio is higher than the referent.
Worker feels they are getting more outcomes then they
should (given inputs)
Restoring Equity: Inequity creates tension in
workers to restore equity.
– In underpayment, workers reduce input levels to correct.
– Overpayment, worker can change the referent to adjust.

If inequity persists, worker will often leave the firm.
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Equity Theory
Figure 12.4
Condition
Equity
Underpayment
Equity
Overpayment
Equity
Person
Referent
Example
Worker contributes
more inputs but also
gets more outputs
than referent
Outcomes
Inputs
= Outcomes
Inputs
Outcomes
Inputs
Worker contributes
< Outcomes more inputs but also
Inputs
gets the same outputs
as referent
Outcomes
Inputs
Worker contributes
same inputs but also
gets more outputs
than referent
> Outcomes
Inputs
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Responses to Perceived Inequities in
Work Situations

What happens when inequities exist?
– If person A believes an inequity exists and her
ratio is too small, she may
reduce her inputs
 ask for more outputs
 change the comparison person
 rationalize that equity exists
 leave the situation

– If person B believes an inequity exists, and his
ratio is too large, he may





increase his inputs
ask for reduced outputs
change the comparison person
rationalize that equity exists
leave the situation
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Equity Theory

Cultural differences
– Equity norm „competes“ with equality norm



Equity norm (outcome to input ratio should be relatively
equal for every employee) is prevalent individualistic
cultures
Equality norm (each employee gets the same outcome
regardless of inputs) is prevalent in collective cultures,
thereby maintaining interpersonal harmony
All process theories have to consider cultural
differences when applied to countries other
than USA (were these theories have been
developed)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
Convergence or Divergence?


Popularity of U.S.
business education
leads to an emphasis
on U.S. motivation
theories
Global corporations
desire to develop
consistent policies
and practices
worldwide


Application of U.S.
motivation theories
not applicable
across cultures
Need to develop
adaptable systems
that are consistent
and effective in
motivating people
across cultures
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
6-15
Implications for Managers
Choosing a single approach to motivation
is difficult
 Compared, process theories appear more
promising than content theories
 Need to understand people who work for
you to select an appropriate system

Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke
6-16