Living in a Nuclear Age- 50’-60’s: The Cold War Culture Chapter 28 Section 1- Living in a Nuclear Age Nuclear Threat As an unpredictable Cold War settled in, several U.S. scientists argued for an all-out effort to build an even more powerful weapon: a hydrogen bomb. Edward Teller, an émigré physicist, pushed for a program to build what he called "the Super"-- a hydrogen fusion bomb. "If the Russians demonstrate a Super before we possess one," said Teller, "our situation will be hopeless.” Andrei Sakharov, a brilliant young Russian physicist, had also been given the task of designing a fusion bomb for the Soviet Union. Thanks to the Soviet spy Klaus Fuchs, Sakharov was familiar with Teller's design, but he soon decided on a different approach. By 1952 the Super was ready for its first test. The fireball of the first H-bomb grew to a diameter of three miles and vaporized an entire island in the Pacific atoll of Eniwetok. The H-bomb's yield was ten megatons, a thousand times greater than the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima. 1 Megaton Surface Blast: Pressure Damage The fission bomb detonated over Hiroshima had an explosive blast equivalent to 12,500 tons of TNT. A 1 megaton hydrogen bomb, hypothetically detonated on the earth's surface, has about 80 times the blast power of that 1945 explosion. Radius of destructive circle: 1.7 miles 12 pounds per square inch 12 At the center lies a crater 200 feet deep and 1000 feet in diameter. The rim of this crater is 1,000 feet wide and is composed of highly radioactive soil and debris. Nothing recognizable remains within about 3,200 feet (0.6 miles) from the center, except, perhaps, the remains of some buildings' foundations. At 1.7 miles, only some of the strongest buildings -those made of reinforced, poured concrete -- are still standing. Ninety-eight percent of the population in this area are dead. Radius: 2.7 miles- 5 psi 5 Virtually everything is destroyed between the 12 and 5 psi rings. The walls of typical multi-story buildings, including apartment buildings, have been completely blown out. The bare, structural skeletons of more and more buildings rise above the debris as you approach the 5 psi ring. Single-family residences within this this area have been completely blown away -- only their foundations remain. Fifty percent of the population between the 12 and 5 psi rings are dead. Forty percent are injured. Radius: 4.7 miles - 2 psi 2 Any single-family residences that have not been completely destroyed are heavily damaged. The windows of office buildings have been blown away, as have some of their walls. The contents of these buildings' upper floors, including the people who were working there, are scattered on the street. A substantial amount of debris clutters the entire area. Five percent of the population between the 5 and 2 psi rings are dead. Forty-five percent are injured. Radius: 7.4 miles -1 psi 1 Residences are moderately damaged. Commercial buildings have sustained minimal damage. Twenty-five percent of the population between the 2 and 1 psi rings have been injured, mainly by flying glass and debris. Many others have been injured from thermal radiation -- the heat generated by the blast. The remaining seventy-five percent are unhurt. 1 Megaton Surface Blast: Fallout One of the effects of nuclear weapons detonated on or near the earth's surface is the resulting radioactive fallout. Immediately after the detonation, a great deal of earth and debris, made radioactive by the blast, is carried high into the atmosphere, forming a mushroom cloud. The material drifts downwind and gradually falls back to earth, contaminating thousands of square miles. This page describes the fallout pattern over a seven-day period. Assumptions Wind speed: 15 mph Wind direction: due east Time frame: 7 days 1 Megaton Surface Blast:Fallout 3,000 Rem* Distance: 30 miles Much more than a lethal dose of radiation. Death can occur within hours of exposure. About 10 years will need to pass before levels of radioactivity in this area drop low enough to be considered safe, by U.S. peacetime standards. 900 Rem Distance: 90 miles A lethal dose of radiation. Death occurs from two to fourteen days. 300 Rem Distance: 160 miles Causes extensive internal damage, including harm to nerve cells and the cells that line the digestive tract, and results in a loss of white blood cells. Temporary hair loss is another result. 90 Rem Distance: 250 miles Causes a temporary decrease in white blood cells, although there are no immediate harmful effects. Two to three years will need to pass before radioactivity levels in this Nuclear Stockpiles According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, the U.S. currently maintains approximately 10,000 nuclear warheads in various states of readiness. It's believed that under START III, that number will be reduced to 2,500. Russia's plans are not known. At the end of 1997, Russia's nuclear stockpile numbered 23,000 weapons. This included active, operational forces; retired, non-deployed warheads awaiting dismantlement; and weapons in reserve. Nuclear Tests The United States conducted 1030 nuclear tests from 1945 - 1992. The Soviet Union conducted 715 tests between 1949 and 1990. In September, 1996 the United Nations General Assembly voted to adopt the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), which prohibits all "nuclear weapons test explosions and all other nuclear explosions." As of September 1998, 150 nations had signed the treaty, and 21 nations had ratified it. Notable exceptions are India and Pakistan, both of which conducted nuclear tests in May, 1998. Surviving a Nuclear Blast: Bomb Shelters Bomb shelter is a place that is used for protection from nuclear fallout or radiation. Nuclear fallout is caused by the explosion of a nuclear weapon. The first real threat of a nuclear attack came around the early 1950's and lasted until the early 1960's. This threat was from communist Russia. This was the first real scare to the people of the United States. But the closest the US has ever came to an all-out nuclear war was the Cuban Missile Crisis. More than a hundred thousand people built bomb shelters. Some companies started to produce one-bedroom bomb shelters. Surviving a Nuclear Blast Nuclear air raid drills were part of everyday life for schoolchildren in the late 1940s and early '50s. Civil Defense in schools was increased. The commonly known duck and cover drills became routine. In this drill, the students would drop to the floor and put their heads between their knees with their backs to the windows. Teachers were instructed to have their children "duck and cover" at the sight of a sudden bright flash. Air Raid Warning System in Michigan Surviving a Nuclear Blast: Bomb Shelters Bomb shelters could be relatively inexpensive or very expensive depending on what things you want, such as a phone, toilet, chairs, tables, TV, sofa, and other items. A nuclear bomb warning - from six months to a few days to a few minutes. Six month warning – enough time to built an underground apartment or condominium. – enough time to go get things like, water, can foods, board games, furniture, generators (wood preferable), books to read while in the shelter, candles for light, matches to light the candles, plates, silver ware, clothes, enough for you to survive Few days warning – just enough time to build an L-shaped trench about fifteen feet wide and ten feet long. Then take – a piece of plywood - cover one end of the hole and then cover over the plywood with about one to two feet of dirt. – The L-shaped trench is good protection from radiation because there is a layer of mass between you and the nuclear fallout. Surviving a Nuclear Blast: Bomb Shelters Surviving a Nuclear Blast: Bomb Shelters Amongst expedient last-minute sheltering options at home, even just simply pushing a heavy table or pool table (one you can get under) into the corner of a below ground basement, ideally the corner with the grade (earth) highest up the wall on the other side of it, can be surprisingly effective. Or, if no heavy table readily available, you can take internal doors off their hinges and lay them atop two supports to create your 'table'. Pile on the two exposed sides, any additional available massbooks, wood, etc. Have a small entrance. Two little 4" air spaces. Cover up any basement windows or other openings. Homebuilt Buried Tank Shelters Homebuilt Buried Tank Shelters The unforgettable 1962 release "Fallout Shelter" took a more direct approach in conveying the fears of teenagers everywhere over nuclear annihilation. Its melodramatic storyline of a boy who wants to share his family's shelter with his girlfriend and his father's intervention is a perfect blending of elements from the overt and the allegorical/subtle Bomb song. Surviving a Nuclear Blast: Bomb Shelters Bomb shelters costing from $100 to as much as $5,000 for an underground suite with phone and toilet were selling like hotcakes. Wall Street investors said the bomb shelter business could gross up to $20 billion in the coming years (if there would be coming years). Survival stores around the nation sold air blowers, filters, flashlights, fallout protection suits, first aid kits and water. General Foods and General Mills sold dry-packaged meals as underground rations. Families with well stocked shelters lived with the fear that after a nuclear attack they'd be invaded by an army of friends and neighbors who neglected to build bunkers of their own. Many ordered contractors to construct their shelters in the dead of night so nosey neighbors wouldn't see. One owner assured his neighbor that the bomb shelter he was building was really a wine cellar. Civil defense films assured the public that simple precautions like walled-off basement corners stocked with two weeks rations and a radio tuned to Conelrad, the new emergency network, would help them survive a nuclear attack. But the government warned that a shoddy homemade shelter could broil its occupants "to a crisp" or squeeze them "like grapefruit." Surviving a Nuclear Blast: Bomb Shelters Newspapers carried radiation Public buildings with deep basements readings beside daily weather reports. Popular Mechanics magazine published a fallout shelter blueprint for the do-it-yourselfer. Congress debated the merits of evacuating large cities versus massive community shelters, Homeowners improvised shelters from septic tanks, concrete tubing, steel sheds and discarded lumber. Major airlines, Detroit automakers, IBM, the phone company and Wall Street planned employee shelters. The Federal Reserve designated banks for postwar check cashing. A farmer in Iowa built a fallout shelter for 200 cows. lined with thick underground concrete were designated as shelters in case of an attack by the Soviet Union. Hollywood got into the mood and began producing nuclear war doomsday films, including "On The Beach," "The Last Man On Earth," "The Day the World Ended," "Atomic Kid," and "Dr. Strangelove.” Television produced its own prime time doomsday. In the premiere episode of the classic series "The Twilight Zone," a young astronaut played by actor Earl Holliman returns to Earth to discover that a nuclear war has left him, like Adam, alone. In the late 1950s, a public opinion poll showed that 40 percent of Americans were seriously considering building a shelter. Nuclear Winter Nuclear winter is a hypothetical global climate condition that was predicted to be a possible outcome of a large-scale nuclear war. It was thought that severely cold weather would be caused by detonating large numbers of nuclear weapon, especially over flammable targets such as cities, large amounts of smoke and soot would be injected into the Earth's stratosphere. This layer of particles would significantly reduce the amount of sunlight that reached the surface, and could potentially remain in the stratosphere for weeks or even years (smoke and soot arising from the burning petroleum fuels and plastics absorbs sunlight much more effectively than smoke from burning). The smoke and soot would be shepherded by strong west-to-east winds, forming a uniform belt of particles encircling the northern hemisphere from 30° to 60° latitude. These thick black clouds could block out much Sun's light for a period as long as several weeks, causing surface temperatures to drop by as much as 20°C for several weeks. The combination of darkness and killing frosts, combined with high doses of radiation from nuclear fallout, would severely damage plant life in the region. The extreme cold, high radiation levels, and the widespread destruction of industrial, medical, and transportation infrastructures along with food supplies and crops would trigger a massive death toll from starvation, exposure, and disease. It was also thought that nitrogen oxides generated by the blasts would degrade the ozone layer; this phenomenon was observed in the first thermonuclear blasts, which had unanticipated degrading effects on the ozone. These effects have since been mitigated by ozone regeneration, but the effect of a full-scale war would undoubtedly be much greater. Secondary effects from ozone depletion and increases in ultraviolet radiation would be significant, with impacts on the viability of most human staple agricultural crops as well as disruption of ocean food chains by killing off phytoplankton. Living in a Nuclear Age- 50’-60’s: The Cold War Culture Chapter 28 Section 2- Dealing with a new world Section 3- Cold War Culture Chapter 30 Sections 1, 2, and 3 G.I. Bill of Rights Revolutionary War – Veterans' benefits- life-long pensions for disabled veterans and dependents of soldiers killed in battle. – – – War of 1812, the Mexican War, the Civil War, the Indian wars, and the Spanish-American War – Benefits- common type was "mustering out" pay. Also land – – – – veterans disabled in World War I a monthly education assistance allowance education and training loan guaranty for a home, farm, or business unemployment pay of $20 a week for up to 52 weeks job-finding assistance top priority for building materials for VA hospitals military review of dishonorable discharges World War II veteran had to serve 90 days or more after Sept. 16, 1940. Total cost of the World War II education program was $14.5 billion grants to vets. Rehabilitation Act of 1919 June 22, 1944- "Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944," or"GI Bill of Rights.” – – – – – $500 a year for tuition, books, fees, and other training costs. 2,230,000 in college 3,480,000 in other schools 1,400,000 in on-job training 690,000 in farm training G.I. Bill of Rights Korean Conflict GI Bill Public Law 550, the "Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act of 1952, " was approved by President Truman on July 16, 1952. To be eligible for Korean GI Bill benefits, a veteran had to: Post-Korean - Vietnam Era GI Bill – Home and farm loans, job counseling, and an employment placement service were other benefits provided to veterans, who served between August 5, 1964, and May 7, 1975. Veterans had to serve more than 180 continuous days. – By 1984 Veterans were receiving about $376/month for educationtraining, books and tuition. serve 90 days or more after June 27, 1950, enter service before Feb. 1, 1955, and receive an other than dishonorable discharge. Total cost of the Korean Conflict GI Bill education and training program was $4.5 billion. – 1,213,000 in institutions of higher learning – 860,000 in other schools – 223,000 on the job – 95,000 in institutional on-farm training VA spent more than $42 billion during this time to provide educational assistance. – – – 5.1 million in colleges 2.5 million in other schools 591,000 on the job – 56,000 in on farm training G.I. Bill of Rights Current Montgomery GI Bill--Active Duty (MGIB): To help the members of the Armed Forces adjust to civilian life after separation from service To give those who cannot afford a higher education the chance to get one To restore lost educational opportunities and vocational readjustment to service members who lost these opportunities as the result of their active military duty To promote and assist the All-Volunteer Force program of the Armed Forces To aid in the retention of personnel in the Armed Forces To enhance our Nation's competitiveness through the development of a more highly educated and productive work force The following briefly summarizes major MGIB provisions: Served on active duty after June 30, 1985. Must fulfill one's basic service obligation. Must have completed high school. Received an honorable discharge. Maximum entitlement is 36 months. Additional "kicker" as determined by DOD. Generally must use benefits within 10 years following discharge. Baby Boom - 19461964 "When we were young, we didn't trust anyone over 30. Now that we're over 30, we don't trust anyone at all." Baby Boom - 19461964 First things first. Why is it called the Baby Boom? Simple, because of a boom in babies! Seventeen million extra babies, in fact. Husbands had just gotten back from World War II and wanted to settle into the old and safe routine that involved hearth, home and children, lots of children. During the first year of the boom 3.4 million babies arrived — at the time a record number for one year. The rate was about 338,000 a month, 100,000 more a month than the previous year. In 1947 the number increased over 1945 by one million. From 1954 on, over four million little boomers appeared on the scene each year, peaking at 4.3 million in 1957 and finally exhausting itself in 1965, when births fell below four million, where they have stayed. • • • • • • 1940 - 2,559,000 births per year 1946 - 3,311,000 births per year 1955 - 4,097,000 births per year 1957 - 4,300,000 births per year 1964 - 4,027,000 births per year 1974 - 3,160,000 births per year 38,503,000 women and 38,038,000 men. Sixty one million of us are white. Nine million black, and about six million Hispanic, Asian and Indian. We account for 31% of the population, a figure that will drop to 20% in a few decades. Baby Boom - 19461964 Symbols of the Baby Boom in Suburbia Hot Dog Production (millions of lbs.) Potato Chip Production (millions of lbs.) Sales of lawn and porch furniture (millions of dollars) Sales of power mowers (millions of dollars) Sales of floor polishers (millions of dollars) Sales of Encyclopaedia (millions of dollars) Number of Children age 5-14 (in millions) Number of baseball Little Leagues 1950 1960 750 320 53.6 1.0 0.24 72 24.3 776 1050 532 145.2 3.8 1.0 300 35.5 5,700 Baby BoomLevitown Levitt was able to offer these houses so cheaply because he was applying construction methods perfected in the deployment of prefab housing in the armed services during World War II. The Levitt model was, finally, a compromise between extreme economy and the promise of an appropriate living space for an American family. Small at first, it could expand with time-- upward, first, then outward. The primary feature of this early Levittown house was its low, low cost- under $8,000 to purchase. With FHAVA housing loans available, this meant home ownership with no down payment, or a tiny one, and a relatively low monthly mortgage Baby Boom Vacations New York World's Fair- 1965 Baby Boom - Vacation Spots Grand Canyon Disneyland Historical trip to Washington DC, Gettysburg, and Virginia Knotts Berry Farm Pacific Ocean Park Saturday afternoon matinee- 25-30 cents for the ticket and 5 cents for candy Coney Island Lake Tahoe Yellowstone National Park Reptile farms Expo67 in Montreal Roller Derby Drive-in theater Wall Drug, Wall, South Dakota and the Black Hills Paul Bunyan Amusement Park in Brainerd, Minnesota Adventureland.” exotic tropical place” Frontierland was made to relive the pioneer days of the American frontier. Fantasyland was created with the goal to "make dreams come true" from the lyrics of "When You Wish Upon a Star." Tomorrowland was created as a look at the "marvels of the future." Baby Boom Entertainment Movies – Abbott and Costello Go to Mars (1953) – – The Amazing Colossal Man (1957) Creature from the Black Lagoon- 1st 3D Movie. The Curse of Frankenstein The Blob Invaders from Mars Invasion of the Body Snatchers I Married a Monster from Outer Space – – – – – Baby Boom Entertainment Drive-ins – One of the largest Drive-In Theaters was the AllWeather Drive-In , Copiague, New York. parking spaces for 2,500 cars. It also had an indoor 1,200 seat viewing area, that was heated and air-conditioned, a playground, a cafeteria, a restaurant with full dinners. A shuttle train that took customers from their cars to the various areas, on the 28 acres. – Many theaters would open the gates as much as 3 hours before the movie would start. This allowed customers to bring the kids early. Many theaters began to serve a wide variety of dinners such as Fried Chicken, Barbecued Sandwiches, Hamburgers, Pizza, etc. A few theater owners even gave the customers the ability to order from their car and have a car hop deliver. To increase sales the intermission trailers were invented. Theaters using these gained increased sales between films. Baby Boom - Television- QUIZ SHOWS A naively trusting public of the Fifties fell in love with television game shows. Some of the games were played for laughs and some for prizes and some for big money. Some survive today in contemporary form. The Price is Right wasn't born with Bob Barker at the helm. It was Bill Cullen in 1956. On Sunday nights everything came to stop while America watched The $64,000 Question. At their peak, there were 22 game shows on the air. By 1958 no one was laughing. That naive trust had been replaced by a suspicious cynicism that is with us yet. Why? Because many of the shows were rigged. The "winners" Americans had rooted for had been supplied with the answers in advance. Charles Van Doren, - “Twenty-One”. As Van Doren kept winning, his popularity grew until he became a recognized celebrity. His acting ability didn't suffer either as America watched him "agonize" over each question. Ultimately, he won $129,000 - a hefty sum at any time, but a huge amount in the 50's The scandal prompted Congressional hearings. Although there were no laws prohibiting the "fixing" of game shows, both the networks and their sponsors acknowledged the public's distaste and kept game shows off the air for quite some time. Thjs Is Your Life I’ve Got A Secret Price is right Queen for a Day Twenty-One- Scandal To Tell the Truth What’s My Line? Baby Boom - TV Dramas Daytime Soap Operas- Hawkins Falls- 1950-1955 Dragnet- 1950-1970- Jack Webb Alfred Hitchcock Presents- mystery/ suspense dramas that came to an end after the last commercial. 1955-1962 Dick Powell Theatre Kraft Suspense Theatre Studio One The Whistler Superman- Starring George Reeves1951-1957 Perry Mason - Lawyer- 1957-1966 Robin Hood- 1955-1958 Route 66- 1960-1964 Highway Patrol- 1955-1959 The Grey Ghost- 1957-1959 The Fugitive- 1963-1967 77 Sunset Strip- 1958-1964 Ben Casey- Doctor show- 1961-1966 Alfred Hitchcock Presents Perry Mason Route 66 Robin Hood Baby Boom - Westerns Roy Rogers- 1951-1957 Hopalong Cassidy- 1949-1951 Gene Autry- 1950-1956 Death Valley Days- 1952-1970(Ron Reagan) Sgt. Preston of the Yukon- 1955-1958 Tombstone Territory- 1957-1958 Rough Riders- 1958-1959 Swamp Fox- 1959-1961 Johnny Ringo- 1959-1960 Laredo- 1967-1969 Here Come the Brides- 1968-1970 Bat Masterson- 1958-1961 Annie Oakley - 1952-1956 Branded- 1965-1966 Cisco Kid- 1950-1955- “Oh, Cisco, Oh Poncho” Davey Crockett- 1954-1955 Gunsmoke- 1955-1971 Life and Times of Wyatt Earp- 1955-1961 Lone Ranger- 1949-1957 Maverick- 1957-1962 Riflman- 1958-1963 Rin Tin Tin- 1954-1959 Wild Bill Hickock- 1951-1958 Yancy Derringer- 1958-1959 Zorro- 1957-1959 Baby Boom - Variety Shows American Bandstand- Dick Clark- 19521987 Arthur Godfrey- 1949-1959 Milton Berle Show- 1948-1967 Ted Mack’s Original Amateur Hour- 19481970 Your Show of Shows- Sid Ceasar and Imogene Coca. 1950-1954 Perry Como Show- 1948-1963 Colgate Comedy Hour- 1950-1955 You Hit Parade- 1950-1959 Jack Benny Show- 1950-1965 People are Funny- Art Linkletter19541961 George Gobel Show- “Lonesome George”- 1954-1960 Ed Sullivan Show- 1948-1971- “A really big shew” Diana Shore Show- 1951-1963 + 1974-1980 Lawrence Welk- 1955-1977 Red Skelton- 1951-1971- “God Bless” Ernie Kovacs- 1952-1962 Jackie Gleason- 1952-1970 Baby Boom - Comedy Shows Amos and Andy- 1951-1953 Andy Griffith Show- 1960-1968 Bachelor Father- 1957-1962 Batman- 1966-1968 Beverly Hillbillies- 1962-1971 Brady Bunch- 1969-1974 Burns and Allen- 1950-1958 Car 54 Where are you?- 1961-1963 Make Room for Danny- Danny Thomas- 1953-1964 Dennis the Menace- 1959-1963 Many Loves of Doby Gillis- 1959-1963 Get Smart- 1965-1969 Gilligans Island- 1964-1967 I Dream of Jeannie- 1965-1970 I Love Lucy- 1951-1957 The Honeymooners- 1952-1961 Leave it to Beaver- 1957-1963 Mr. Ed- 1961-1965 Ozzie and Harriet- 1952-1966 Topper- 1953-1955 Grouch Marx- You Bet Your Life- 1950-1961 Father Knows Best-1954-1963 Baby Boom - Kid’s Shows Captain Kangaroo- 1955-1984 Ding Dong School- 1952-1956 Flintstones- 1960-1966 Flipper- 1964-1967 My Friend Flicka- 1956-1958 Howdy Doody- 1947-1960 Jetons- 1962-1963 Lassie- 1954-1971 Mickey Mouse Club- 1955-1957 The Monkees- 1966-1968 Bozo the Clown- 1961-Today- Chicago TV Romper Room- 1954-1992 Soupy Sales show- 1960- Pie in the Face. Baby Boom- Burma Shave His cheek Was rough His chick vamoosed And now she won't Come home to roost Burma-Shave The place to pass On curves You know Is only at A beauty show Burma-Shave On curves ahead Remember, sonny That rabbit's foot Didn't save The bunny Burma-Shave Twinkle, twinkle One-eyed car We all wonder WHERE you are Burma-Shave These signs We gladly Dedicate To men who've had No date of late Burma-Shave A guy Who drives A car wide open Is not thinkin' He's just hopin' Burma-Shave To kiss A mug That's like a cactus Takes more nerve Than it does practice Burma-Shave Burma-Shave Was such a boom They passed The bride And kissed the groom The whale Put Jonah Down the hatch But coughed him up Because he scratched Burma-Shave Candidate says Campaign Confusing Babies kiss me Since I've been using Burma-Shave He tried To cross As fast train neared Death didn't draft him He volunteered Burma-Shave She will Flood your face With kisses 'Cause you smell So darn delicious Burma-Shave Lotion Altho insured Remember, kiddo They don't pay you They pay Your widow Burma-Shave I'd heard it praised By drug store clerks I tried the stuff Hot dog! It works Burma-Shave His face Was smooth And cool as ice And oh! Louise! He smelled so nice Burma-Shave Lotion Baby Boom Products Snowmobile Disposable Diapers Scrabble Zamboni Liquid Paper Tupperware Power steering Explorer I Tang instant drink Microwave Oven (Radarange) Plastic Lined Cloth diapers Slinky Play-Doh Lego Plastic Yoyo UNIVAC computer Xerox Machine Bar Codes- track RR cars Polio Vaccine Velcro Pantyhose Integrated Circuit Silly Putty Federal Interstate Highway Act of 1956 melamine dinnerware