MODERN ERA:
1750 - 1914
CHANGES IN THE
NATURE AND
FUNCTIONS OF STATE
STRUCTURES
ENLIGHTENMENT

Enlightenment






Voltaire (1694-1778)







All human knowledge comes from sense perceptions
Life, Liberty and Property; 1689 English Bill of Rights
Allowed persons to revolt against an oppressive ruler
Adam Smith: laws of supply and demand determine price
Montesquieu: checks, balances, balanced government
Deism






Champion of religious liberty and individual freedom
Prolific writer; father of Enlightenment
John Locke


Thinkers called philosophes
Sought natural laws that governed human society
Center of Enlightenment was France
Theory of progress was ideology of philosophes
Apply reason/science to society, government, law
Popular among thinkers of Enlightenment
Accepted existence of a god
Denied supernatural teachings of Christianity
God the Clockmaker
Ordered the universe according to rational and natural laws
Impact of Enlightenment




Weakened the influence of organized religion
Encouraged secular values based on reason rather than revelation
Subjected society to rational analysis, promoted progress and prosperity
Enlightenment applied science to every day life and made science practical
THE ENLIGHTENMENT
Revolutionary Ideas

Popular sovereignty
Relocating sovereignty in the people
Traditional monarchs

Claimed a "divine right" to rule

Derived from God, unquestionable

Monarch unanswerable to people




Constitutional Limitations


Aristocracy, Enlightenment challenged king
Glorious Revolution of 1688

Made the monarch responsible to the people

John Locke's theory of contractual government

Authority comes from the consent of the governed
Freedom and equality




Demands for freedom of worship
Freedom of expression, assembly
Demands for political and legal equality



Equality not extended to all



Condemned legal, social privileges of aristocrats
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract
Women, Peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color
Originally only extended to tax paying males with education
Ideals of Enlightenment were significant global influence
STAGES OF POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The Stage is Set
•
State is economically weak, government is ineffective
•
New ideas arise, new groups arise to challenge status-quo, intellectual movements influence
change
Old Regime Loses Control
•
Old elites attempt to reassert privileges
•
Some short term event sparks a conflict, disaster rallies forces who oppose old elites
•
Government too divided and weak to suppress revolt
Moderate Phase of the Revolution
•
Moderates come to power, initiate changes
•
Electorate expanded, constitution liberalized, some reforms initiated
Reaction to the Moderates Arise
•
Moderates enact only limited reforms
•
Radicals mobilize their supporters demanding more extensive reforms
Radicals Seize Control
•
Radicals take control of state and revolution
•
Radicals enact sweeping changes, eliminate old institutions completely
Radical Reign of Terror
•
Foreign, domestic opposition arises to challenge radicals
•
Radicals react, remove opponents, seek to institutionalize, spread their ideology
Moderate Return
•
Moderates who come to represent the majority remove radicals
•
End the most radical reforms, return privileges to many groups, lose contact with people
Rise of a Strong Leader or Authoritarianism
•
Usually a military leader arises to oppose moderates
•
Seizes control of state, institutionalizes revolution, revolution ends
REVOLUTIONS 1750 – 1914






American Revolution 1776 – 1783
French Revolution 1789 – 1799
Haitian Revolution 1793 – 1802
Latin American Revolutions 1810 – 1822
Mehmet Ali in Egypt, 1820s
European Revolutions 1820s – 1848











Belgium revolts from Netherlands
Greece revolts from Ottoman Empire
French Revolutions in 1830 and 1848
European Revolutions in 1848: Italy, Central Europe
Polish Revolutions 1830, 1863
Meiji Restoration (Japan) 1867
Young Turks (Ottoman Empire) 1908 – 1920s
1st Iranian Revolution 1905
1st Russian Revolution 1905
Mexican Revolution 1910 – 1920
Chinese Revolution 1911 – 1912
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Tension between Britain, American colonies


Legacy of Seven Years' War



Colonial protest




British debt, North American tax burden
Colonists increasingly independent minded
Over taxes, trade policies, Parliamentary rule
Colonial boycott of British goods
Attacks on British officials; Boston Tea Party, 1773
Political protest over representation in Parliament


Continental Congress, 1774
British troops, colonial militia skirmished at the village of Lexington, 1775
The Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776



Thirteen united States of America severed ties with Britain
Declaration inspired by Enlightenment, Locke's theory of government
The American Revolution, 1775-1781




British advantages: strong government, navy, army, loyalists in colonies
American advantages: European allies, George Washington's leadership
Weary of a costly conflict, British forces surrendered in 1781
Building an independent state: Constitutional Convention, 1787




Constitution guaranteed freedom of press, of speech, and of religion
Republic based on principles of freedom, equality, popular sovereignty
Full legal and political rights were granted only to men of property
FRENCH REVOLUTION & NAPOLEON
Summoning the Estates General





Financial crisis: half of government revenue went to national debt
King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General to raise new taxes
Many representatives wanted sweeping political and social reform
First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried to limit Third Estate (commoners)
National Assembly








Formed by representatives of Third Estate, 17 June 1789
Demanded a written constitution and popular sovereignty
Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked insurrections in many cities
National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen"
"Liberty, equality, and fraternity“: slogan and values of the National Assembly
The Assembly abolished the feudal system, altered the role of church
France became a constitutional monarchy, 1791
The Convention and the Reign of Terror







Replaced National Assembly under new constitution, 1791
Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to restore ancien régime
Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic
King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette executed, 1793
Radical Jacobins dominated Convention in 1793-94 in "reign of terror"
Revolutionary changes: in religion, dress, calendar, women's rights
The Directory, 1795-1799



A conservative reaction against the excesses of the Convention
Executed the Jacobin leader Robespierre, July 1794
Napoleonic France was Enlightened Despotism








Brought stability: blended monarchy, autocracy, democracy
Made peace with the Roman Catholic church and pope
Reformed French economic, banking system: mercantilism
Extended freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews
Civil Code of 1804: political and legal equality for all adult men
Code Napoleon: becomes one of the world’s great legal traditions
Restricted individual freedom, especially speech and press
THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM
HAITIAN REVOLUTION
Saint-Domingue

Rich French colony on western Hispaniola

Society dominated by small white planter class
90 percent of population were slaves
Horrendous working conditions
Large communities of escaped slaves (maroons)
Ideas of Enlightenment reached educated blacks
Free blacks fought in American war






Widespread discontent

White settlers sought self-governance
Gens de couleur sought political rights
Slaves wanted freedom



Slave revolt began in 1791

Factions of white settlers, gens de couleur, slaves battled each other
French troops arrived in 1792; British, Spanish intervened in 1793
Slaves conquer whole island including Spanish part
Whites driven into exile, executed




Toussaint Louverture (1744-1803)

Son of slaves, literate, son of Enlightenment
Skilled organizer, built strong, disciplined army


Controlled most of Saint-Domingue by 1797
Created a constitution in 1801



Arrested by French troops; died in jail, 1803
Haiti





Yellow fever ravaged French troops; defeated, driven out by slave armies
Declared independence in 1803; republic established in 1804
Civil War followed until 1810; kingdom to 1820
Dominican Republic independent in 1844
LATIN AMERICA




Stages

Enlightenment, US Revolution, French Revolution influence creoles

Creoles feel marginalized by peninsulares, mercantilism

French Revolution, Napoleon occupy Iberia: creoles, peninsulares hate

Colonies left on their own, begin to make decisions without benefit of mother country

Creoles lead independence movements, form militias, resist return of Spain

Civil wars, turmoil, suffering followed as creoles battle Spain for control

Conservatives take control of new states after independence
Result

Many newly independent nations

Mexico: Grito de Dolores, Fr. Hidalgo & Morelos, Iturbide

South America: Simon Bolivar (North), Jose de San Martin (Central)

Brazil: Different – peaceful split from Portugal, new ruler becomes emperor

Haiti: Different – a slave revolt, rebellion led to independence
After Independence

Life for majority of people (mestizos, mulattos, Blacks, Indians) little changed, marginalized

Societies remained largely casted

Small powerful elite of creole families ruled independent states

Church is part of the government structure; assists governing elite – rise of anti-clericalism

Rule by military strongmen called caudillos becomes common; armies turn on people

Struggle between liberals and conservatives, centrists and federalists to define state
structures

Developments limited to exportable goods, industries and most assets controlled by foreigners

Heavy British, American investment in resources leads to Western financial control
Standouts: Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile
OTTOMAN REFORM, REORGANIZATION
Attempt to reform military

Led to violent Janissary revolt (1807-1808), suppression of Janissaries
Reformer Mahmud II (1808-1839) became sultan after revolt
Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed; reforms followed
He built an European-style army, academies, schools, roads, and telegraph




Legal, educational reforms

Called Tanzimat ("reorganization") era (1839-1876)
Ruling class sought sweeping restructuring to strengthen state
Broad legal reforms, modeled after Napoleon's civic code
State reform of education (1846), free and compulsory primary education (1869)
Undermined authority of the ulama, enhanced the state authority





Opposition to Tanzimat reforms

Religious conservatives critical of attack on Islamic law and tradition
Legal equality for minorities resented by some, even a few minority leaders
Young Ottomans wanted more reform: freedom, autonomy, decentralization
High-level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks on the sultan's power




Cycles of reform and repression

1876, coup staged by bureaucrats who demanded a constitutional government
New sultan Abd al-Hamid II (1876-1909)




The Young Turks






Proved an autocrat: suspended constitution, dissolved parliament, and punished liberals
Reformed army and administration: became source of the new opposition
After 1889, an active body of opposition led by army, navy officers
Called for universal suffrage, equality, freedom, secularization, women's rights
Forced Abd al-Hamid to restore constitution, dethroned him (1909)
Nationalistic: favored Turkish dominance within empire, led to Arab resistance
The empire survived only because of distrust among European powers
MUSLIM RESISTANCE

Resistance

Muslim universities



Muslim Army Officers in Service of Europeans



Often educated in western style universities, learned western ideas
Become source of anti-Western activities even while supporting reform
Revolt in the Sudan

Egypt nominally ruled Sudan, attempted to enforce control








Egypt able to control Nile farmers; opposition comes from nomads, herders
Rule greatly resented as it was corrupt, overtaxed peasants
British pressure Egyptians to eradicate slavery, upsetting Muslims (Koran allows)
Muhammad Achmad “The Mahdi” (1870s)

Direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad; proclaims jihad against Egyptians, British masters
Wahhabis Reformer: A very puritanical form of Islam, seeks to purify Islam
Purge Islam of problems; reform, modernize but not at expense to Islam
Overran all of Sudan, threatens Egypt, killed British commander at Khartoum
Khalifa Abdallahi and the Mahdist state



Frequently organized education around western model
Educated several generations of students
The Mahdi dies; his successor builds an Islamic state under rule of Koran
Threatens to overrun all of Middle East, drive out foreigners, westernizers; British intervene
Reality: Reformers Discredited



Religious revivalists who wanted a return to a pure Islam proved unsuccessful
Reformers willing to borrow some western ideas could not win over people
British (Europeans) will send in army to crush revolts, threats to Europeans
QING (MANCHU) CHINA

Qing China (1622 – 1911)

Nomadic dynasty from Manchuria




Retained much of Chinese political traditions, institutions



Retained examination system
Ruled through Confucian scholars
Qing Army



To rule, maintained strict separation of Chinese, Manchu
Chinese not allowed to settle in Manchuria
Manchurians not allowed to marry Chinese
Manchurian nomadic army based on cavalry
Unwilling to use modern weapons
Rot from Within begins in 18th century

Emperor isolated, ineffective




Bureaucracy






Public works (dikes, water management) reduced, river silted
Military in decline, fleet in trouble, armies unreliable
Peasants lot deteriorated



Too large and cumbersome, corrupt and conservative
Examination system riddled with favoritism, elitism, cheating
Wealthy buy positions in bureaucracy
Bureaucrats had no qualifications, training
Diversion of state funds to private families


Surrounded by eunuchs, advisors who kept him isolated
Lived in Forbidden City at center of Beijing
Extreme politics amongst bureaucrats, eunuchs, harem
Food shortages, landlord demands
Bandits on roads, beggars everywhere
Lack of innovation, reform or insight
CHINA UNDER PRESSURE

The Taiping rebellion

Internal turmoil in China in the later nineteenth century




The Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by Hong Xiuquan





Gentry sided with government; regional armies had European weapons
Taipings defeated in 1864; the war claimed twenty to thirty million lives
Reform frustrated

The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895)





Blended Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial technology
Built shipyards, railroads, weapon industries, steel foundries, academies
Not enough industry to make a significant change
Powerful empress dowager Cixi opposed changes
The hundred-days reforms (1898)




Called for end of Qing dynasty; resented Manchu rule
Radical social change: no private property, footbinding, concubinage
Popular in southeast China; seized Nanjing (1853), moved on Beijing
Taiping defeat by combined Qing and foreign troops


Population grew by 50 percent; land and food more slowly; poverty strained resources
Other problems: official corruption, drug addiction
Four major rebellions in 1850s and 1860s; the most dangerous was the Taiping
Two Confucian scholars advised radical changes in imperial system
Young emperor Guangxu inspired to launch wide-range reforms
Movement crushed by Cixi; emperor imprisoned; reformers killed
The Boxer rebellion





Real name: the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, 1899-1900
Local militia attacked foreigners, foreign legations, Chinese Christians
Crushed by European and Japanese troops
Chinese forced to sign humiliating treaties
Collapse of Qing dynasty in 1912
CHINESE REVOLUTION

Reform Fails



Chinese elites unwilling, unable to reform
Boxer Rebellion shows weakness of state, humiliating to Chinese
Chinese leaders


Leaders educated abroad, especially Japan, US
Sun Yat-sen



Sun’s Three Principles of the People






Local army rebellion followed by many armies
Joined by United League members
2/3 of provinces join rebels
1912





Nationalism: Overthrow Manchus, end foreign hegemony
Democracy: Popularly elected republican form of government
People's Livelihood: help people, regulate means of production, land
1911 Revolution broke out in Hubei


Founds United League in Tokyo using Chinese foreign funds
Wins support of many military officers, foreign exiles
Last Emperor abdicates
Sun Yat-sen inaugurated as first president
General Yuanshikai in Beijing takes control
Sun resigns as president to unify the state
Results




Revolution did not establish a stable republic
China fell into warlords' rule
Through unequal treaties, foreign states still controlled economy of China
Growth of Chinese nationalism, radicalism
JAPAN: SHOGUN TO EMPEROR
Crisis and reform in early nineteenth century

Emperor isolated, secluded; shogun = military dictator




Centralized bureaucracy; alliances with feudal lords
Japan not unaware of what was going on in wider world
Dutch allowed to visit Japan at Nagasaki once a year
Crisis



Crop failure, high taxes on agriculture, rising rice prices
All led to protests and rebellions
Reforms and ideas conflict




Government: Neo-Confucian conservative reforms
Dutch Learning: Support western studies, reforms, working with west; anti-Chinese
National Studies: praised Japanese traditions, emperor, Shinto led to ultranationalism
Foreign pressure on Japan

European wanted her to reverse long-standing closed door policy



Europeans wanted to trade, wanted safe ports for whaling fleets
1844 requests by British, French, U.S. for the right of entry rebuffed
1853



U.S. Commodore Perry sailed U.S. fleet to Tokyo Bay, demanded entry
Japan forced to accept unequal treaties with U.S., other western countries
The end of Tokugawa rule





British, French, Russians demand, receive similar treaties to US
Widespread opposition to shogun rule, especially in provinces
Dissidents rallied around emperor in Kyoto, attack foreigners
Tosa-Satsuma Samurai Rebellion/Civil War breaks out in 1866
The Meiji restoration, 1868




Dissident Samurai militia loyal to emperor defeats Shogun’s troops
The boy emperor Mutsuhito, or Meiji, regained authority; Shogunate abolished
End of almost seven centuries of military rule in Japan
RUSSIA: EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE
Post-1812

Great concern with defense, liberal ideas as threat to old order
Government introduced reforms to improve bureaucracy
Made an alliance with the conservative powers of Europe to maintain order



December Uprising 1825

Death of Alexander I prompted some western-oriented officers to rebel
Suppressed mercilessly by new tsar


Nicholas I

Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality
State became very repressive, secret police
Policeman of Europe: used army to suppress revolutions
Suppressed rebellion in Poland
Policy of foreign wars to divert domestic problems





Serfdom Issue

Russia needed work force in order to industrial



Serfdom not efficient
Lack of workers in cities an obstacle to economic development
Gap between western, eastern Europe economic systems
Emancipation of serfs by Alexander II begun in 1863






Due to loss in Crimean War
Serfs gained right to own land, got most of the land from nobles
Nobles kept best and gave worst to serfs
Serfs had no political rights; had to pay a redemption tax on land: kept them in permanent debt
Emancipation did not increase agricultural production
Tsar was careful to preserve aristocratic order; serfs received no political rights


Political and legal reforms followed

1864: creation of zemstvos






Local assemblies with representatives from all classes
Tended to only see local interests and not national concerns; legal reform more successful
A weak system: nobles dominated, tsar held veto power
Small middle class grew; improved corps of army officers; middle class politicians, bureaucrats
Literacy increased; readership spread; some women enter intellectual community
RUSSIAN REPRESSION & MARXISM
Cycles of protest and repression

Peasants





Often landless, no political power
Frustrated by lack of meaningful reform
Peasant uprisings become more common than serf as frustration heightened
Population increased as potato introduced, increasing pressures on society
Social Protest


Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870s



Middle Class, some aristocrats advocated rights, political representation
Radical Intelligentsia advocated socialism and anarchism, recruited in countryside
Repression by tsarist authorities: secret police, censorship
Russification: sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated

Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition

Radicals wanted solution to social issue from a Russian perspective





Young intellectuals went directly to the peasants
Most opposed westernization, autocracy, capitalism
Many became peasant anarchists
Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by a bomb in 1881
Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive, conservative ruler

Marxism and the Reality of Russia

Marx foresaw a revolution by workers
Russia lacked lack worker base; society was largely peasant
Workers tended to be radical but misdirected
Russia lacked a middle class running society prior to revolution




The Bolsheviks (Russian Marxists) & Vladimir Ilyich Lenin

From middle class bureaucratic family, was an intellectual
Argued that proletariat was developing in advance of revolution





Felt Russia could have a revolution without a middle class phase
Organized an elite revolutionary party to lead workers, peasants
Organized the Bolsheviks
Party was secretive as Russian secret police everywhere



Infiltrated unions, workers organizations, peasant groups
Agitated against government, organized secret cells to lead revolution
MARXISM:
Workers
will stage a
revolution and
overthrow
capitalism, state
LENINISM:
Will only
succeed with
the leadership of
an elite
group of
revolutionaries
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905

Russian Revolution of 1905

Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese War was cause



Massive protests followed news of defeat







Workers tended towards non-Marxist socialists; Marxists marginalized
Sought to achieve ends without full scale revolution
A Fizzled Revolution

Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the Duma







Many parties elected with conflicting interests
Unable, unwilling to cooperate
Rendered ineffective by tsar, bureaucracy
Stolypin Reforms


Poor workers of St. Petersburg march to palace to ask tsar for help
Unarmed workers shot down by government troops
Peasants seized landlords' property, killed landlords
Workers formed soviets (worker councils) in cities, factories


Workers mounted general strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow
Peasant insurrections in countryside against landlords
Police repressions ineffective, just upset people
Bloody Sunday massacre


Russia always diverted domestic tension by short, successful wars
In 1870s, 1880s had expanded against Ottoman Empire
Reforms allowed peasants to buy land; end redemptive payments
Small group of very successful peasant landowners began to arise
Rights for workers gradually ignored, cancelled
Army failed to support revolution
For the Future



Nicholas II was weak, ill-advised, unwilling to end autocracy
Russian Marxists emboldened, reorganized, radicalized
Peasants, workers radicalized, unlikely to cooperate in future
NATIONALISM & IMPERIALISM

Nationalism heavily involved in imperialism


Source of national pride, strength to acquire colonies
Non-Westerners soon learned to be nationalist



India

Two types of state-structures in India






Educated Indians met, with British approval, to discuss public affairs
Congress aired grievances about colonial rule, sought Indian self-rule
1906, All-India Muslim League




Sought an Indian society based on European science and traditional Hinduism
Used press to mobilize educated Hindus and advance reform
The Indian National Congress, founded 1885


Princely States: States ruled by Indian princes, assisted by British officials
British possessions: States ruled directly by British
Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), "father of modern India"

Formed to advance interests of Indian Muslims
Limited reform, 1909;
Wealthy Indians could elect representatives to local councils
Indian nationalism



Many studied in Western schools, learned western knowledge to get ahead
Many defined their sense of nation as response to imperialism
A powerful movement, achieved independence in 1947
India served as a model for anti-colonial campaigns in other lands
Other Examples






Sepoy Rebellion in India (1856)
Meiji Restoration in Japan
1898 Boxer Rebellion in China
Late 1800s Mahdist Rebellion and State in the Sudan
1898 Boer War in South Africa
1905 Iranian, 1910 Mexican, 1911 Chinese Revolutions
IRANIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905-1911

Causes



Intellectuals feel that to save Iran they would have to limit Shah’s power
Encroachment by Russians, British on Iranian territory upset Iranians
Initiated by the Majilis or Iranian Parliament



1905: A year of demonstrations and strikes
Parliamentarians tended to be educated, merchants, clerics, young
Introduced the constitutional concept of government



1906




Constitutionalists failed to protect victory against domestic, international threats
Trade Russian influence for British control
Took at face value Mohammed Ali Shah's pledges to respect constitution
1907-1908




UK, Russia prepare to divide Iran into “spheres of influence”
Mohammed Ali Shah used opportunity to overthrow constitution
Shah attempts to kill constitutionalists, forced to abdicate, flees
Spheres of influence


Anglo-Russian convention signed on August 31, 1907
Divided Iran into three zones




People were sovereign and their representatives were delegated to enact the laws
Old Shah abdicates, new shah accepts constitutional limitations
1910


Russia took Northern part
British zone paralleled the Persian Gulf, Indian empire
Neutral zone across center of country open to both interests
Russia invades
Helps old Shah reestablish his rule in Iran
MEXICAN REVOLUTION 1911- 1920

The Revolution (1910-1920)


Middle class joins peasants, workers overthrow Diaz
Class Factions




1910-1914: all rebels vs. Diaz and Huerta
1914-20: Carranza, Obregon vs. Zapata, Villa
Regional Revolutions: North, South, Yucatan
Course of the Revolution

Liberal Middle Class Leaders

Francisco Madero rules at first





General Huerta, army side with landowners, kills Madero
Venustiano Carranza







Organizes coalition with Villa, Zapata, Obregon
US troops sent by Wilson support Carranza, Huerta resigns
Peasant, Common Rebels


Seeks middle class constitutional democracy
Opposes land reform; landless peasants attack large landowners
Peasant armies win pitched battles against government troops
Pancho Villa led northern rebels, especially landless peasants
Emiliano Zapata initiates land reform in the Southern areas he controls
US Intervenes in 1914 (Veracruz) and 1916 (Chasing Pancho Villa)
Civil War 1914 – 1917: Constitutionalists (Carranza) win, reestablish control
Women’s Roles: Soldaderas (camp followers), Soldiers, Political Activists
New Constitution of 1917 brought sweeping reform






Advanced nationalist, radical views
Universal male suffrage (hostile to women)
Power, property of Church restricted
Free, secular, obligatory primary education
Returned lands seized illegally; curbed foreign ownership
8 hour work day, Minimum wage, Strikes legal
CHINESE REVOLUTION

Reform Fails



Chinese elites unwilling, unable to reform
Boxer Rebellion shows weakness of state, humiliating to Chinese
Chinese leaders


Leaders educated abroad, especially Japan, US
Sun Yat-sen



Sun’s Three Principles of the People






Local army rebellion followed by many armies
Joined by United League members
2/3 of provinces join rebels
1912





Nationalism: Overthrow Manchus, end foreign hegemony
Democracy: Popularly elected republican form of government
People's Livelihood: help people, regulate means of production, land
1911 Revolution broke out in Hubei


Founds United League in Tokyo using Chinese foreign funds
Wins support of many military officers, foreign exiles
Last Emperor abdicates
Sun Yat-sen inaugurated as first president
General Yuanshikai in Beijing takes control
Sun resigns as president to unify the state
Results




Revolution did not establish a stable republic
China fell into warlords' rule
Through unequal treaties, foreign states still controlled economy of China
Growth of Chinese nationalism, radicalism