Chapter 16: Political Revolutions in
Europe and the Americas
Political Revolution
Political revolution changes
fundamental basis of government
Apparent unity can shift rapidly
Revolutions often based on a coalition
Threshold of victory can bring crisis
Struggle to gain power within coalition
often more brutal than effort to end prior
system
Political Revolution
English, American and French
Revolutions are all labeled “democratic”
by analysts
These revolutions share common traits
Slogans included liberty, equality,
fraternity, natural rights, pursuit of
happiness, property, no taxation without
representation
Outcomes often different than stated goals
Human Rights in the Age of Enlightenment
Philosophical Rationales
Thomas Hobbes
• Saw origins of government in brutal life without
government
– Life in nature--solitary, nasty, brutish, and short
• Made a social contract to natural world
• To break contract was to return to state of
nature
Human Rights in the Age of Enlightenment
Philosophical Rationales [cont.]
John Locke, 2nd Treatise on Government
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Social contract the origin of government
State of nature a benevolent place
Right of revolution if gov’t violates human rights
Majority rule of property holders the key
concern
• Role of government is to protect property
Human Rights in the Age of Enlightenment
Study of Scientific Revolution a “new”
field
Characteristics of the Revolution
Rise of a community instead of individuals
Development of new methods
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Reliance on mathematics
Empiricism
Technology present in equipment use
Freedom of inquiry
Human Rights in the Age of Enlightenment
Intellectual Revolutions in Science & Philosophy
Copernicus revises the universe
• Placed sun at center of solar system for simplicity
• Feared impact from Church which accepted a geocentric
view
• Published findings on his deathbed
Tyco Brahe offered complex geocentric model
Conflict between religious and mathematical
astronomers
Human Rights in the Age of Enlightenment
Intellectual Revolutions in Science &
Philosophy
Galileo added observations and new
technology to the debate and supported
geocentric view
Newton developed calculus
England’s Glorious Revolution, 1688
Unauthorized taxes by Charles I lead to
civil war & Charles’ execution in 1649
Oliver Cromwell leads Puritans to
victory and rules as Lord Protector to
1658
Civil War establishes principle that
monarchy can be abolished
England’s Glorious Revolution, 1688
The Bill of Rights, 1689
Parliament rejects Stuarts for William & Mary in
1688
New monarchs sign Bill of Rights in 1689
• No taxes raised or armies recruited without approval of
Parliament
• No subject can be detained without due process
• King cannot suspend laws on his own
• Reality is government by male property owners
Philosophes & Enlightenment in the 18th Century
Philosophes want to use science &
reason to solve problems in politics &
economics
Ideas are in American and French
Revolutions
Were influenced by travel and
knowledge of other cultures
Most were deists in religion
Philosophes & Enlightenment in the 18th Century
Believed in Progress and the perfectibility of
mankind
Encyclopedia of Diderot is famous product
Voltaire--freedom of liberty, press, inquiry
Enlightened Despotism
Good government does not require selfgovernment; rationale used by colonial powers
Philosophes & Enlightenment in the 18th Century
Rousseau skeptical about self-government
Promotes idea of General Will which sounds close
to tyranny in minds of critics
Is unclear about how to achieve it
Adam Smith
Promoted free trade
Envy of wealth necessitated protection of private
property
Revolution in North America, 1776
Americans resent British control from 1760s
onward
British policy built of large army in North
America and taxation to support it
Grievances lead to Declaration of
Independence, 1776
It asserts same concerns as English on eve of the
Glorious Revolution
Revolution in North America, 1776
Constitution and Bill of Rights, 1789
Constitution creates federal government
Bill of Rights goes beyond British model to
add freedom of press, religion, assembly,
and right to bear arms
Approach tied to four American factors
• 1) Settlers were religious dissenters; 2)
abundant land; 3) absence of privileged
classes; 4) world had become more radical with
new political ideas
Revolution in North America, 1776
The First Anti-Imperial Revolution
Represented rejection of colonial rule
But westward movement created American
imperial ambition
Still, American Revolution inspired many
subsequent revolutions such as Nehru in India
Not a complete political revolution; many groups
left out but ideal of equality emerges
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
American Revolution was unique--4 million
people, edge of continent, no tradition of
class or clerical privilege, built on tradition of
British liberty
French Revolution was internal revolt against
entrenched elites & monarchy, in most
populous & powerful European nation
All Europe affected by French Revolution
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
Origins of Revolution
King’s need for revenue
France was divided into three Estates
Nobles and clergy were tax exempt
Revolt of the Third Estate
Want to turn Estates-General into legislature
Sieyes, What is the Third Estate?
Want delegates to meet as unicameral legs.
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
The Revolt of the Poor
Events occur against backdrop of food shortage
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Assault on Bastille, July 14, 1789
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
Great Fear in the countryside
Women’s March on Versailles, Oct. 5-6, 1789
Constitution of 1791
• Reflects ideals of philosophes
• Promulgated after wave of protests
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
International War, the 2nd Revolution
and the Terror, 1791-99
French actions threaten Europe
• Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Europe attacks the Revolution, 1792
Poor attempt to kill Louis XVI, August 9, 1792
Legislature turns radical after September elections
• Reign of Terror
• Levee en masse (national military draft)
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
International War, the 2nd Revolution, and
the Terror, 1791-99 [cont.]
Radical actions under Robespierre
• New Calendar
• Worship of the Supreme Being
Success in war prompts reaction against extreme
measures
• Directory established, 1795
• Napoleon to power, 1799
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
Napoleon in Power, 1799-1812
Consolidates or extends revolutionary
ideas
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Code Napoleon, 1804
“careers open to talent”
Concordat with Pope
Full citizenship for Protestants and Jews
Actions reflect his own modest origins
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
Napoleonic Wars & the Spread of Revolution,
1799-1812
Direct or indirect control of Europe by 1810
Flaws in his policies magnified by ambition
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Unsuccessful in war against Britain
Defeated in invasion of Russia, 1812
Nationalism undermines his control of W. Europe
Defeated and exiled, 1814 & 1815
Congress of Vienna creates balance of power, 1815
Haiti: Slave Revolution & Overthrow of Colonialism
Caribbean Slave revolts commonly
suppressed
Hispaniola, French sugar colony, saw
40,000 whites in control of 500,000 black
slaves
Slaves escape brutality physically by
maroonage (flight) and psychologically
through vodoun (voodoo)
Network of resistance begins in 1750s
Haiti: Slave Revolution & Overthrow of Colonialism
The Slave Revolt
Begins in 1791 perhaps with inspiration from
American and French revolutions
French revolution outlaws slavery, 1794
Toussaint L’Ouverture leads revolt to success
Napoleonic attempt to restore French control fails
despite use of 20,000 troops
Final independence of Haiti declared in 1804
Abolition of Slavery and the Slave Trade
Fear of Haiti-style revolts leads British
to abolish slavery, 1807
U. S. abolished international slave trade
in 1808 but retains slavery until Civil
War
Slavery abolished in Puerto Rico, 1876,
in Cuba, 1886, & in Brazil, 1888
The End of Colonialism in Latin America, 1810-30
Independence Movements
Revolts led by creole elites, direct descendents of
original Spanish settlers
• Helped Spain & Portugal put down Indian revolts
Creole fear of indigenous population helped spur
drive to independence
Revolts led by creoles were for their control of
countries & enjoyment of Enlightenment ideals
The End of Colonialism in Latin America, 1810-30
After Independence
Bolivar & the Challenge of Unification
• Led independence movements after French
invasion of Spain
– Active in Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador,
Columbia
• Hoped for a unified South America but got local
caudillo rule
The End of Colonialism in Latin America, 1810-30
After Independence [cont.]
Mexico
• Early Mexican movement opposed Creoles leaders
• By 1821 independence creoles were in charge
• Territory lost to U.S. and to breakaway nations
Brazil
• Portuguese monarch fled Napoleon for Brazil
• Brazil made co-equal with Portugal
• Brazil became a monarchy
The End of Colonialism in Latin America, 1810-30
After Independence [cont.]
Paraguay: The New Historiography
• Dictactor Francia strongly criticized by creoles
and gained a bad reputation
• Revolution based on self-government & land
distribution
• Efforts to defeat Paraguay as a source of
inspiration for Argentines and others met with
failure
The End of Colonialism in Latin America, 1810-30
Religious & Economic Issues
Political Revolutions: What Difference Do They Make?
Each Revolution has a clear outcome
British created constitutional rights, failed to
extend them to America, but abolished slavery
Philosophes inspired subsequent revolutions
Americans promoted freedom but not for all
Lat. America: political but not econ. freedom
French Revolution is the exception
Idea of revolution but prefigures 20th century