Chapter 6
Care of the Patient with a
Gallbladder, Liver, Biliary Tract,
or Exocrine Pancreatic Disorder
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Laboratory and Diagnostic
Examinations
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Serum bilirubin test
Liver enzyme tests
Serum protein test
Oral cholecystography (gallbladder series)
Intravenous cholangiography (IV cholangiogram)
Operative cholangiography
T-tube cholangiogram
Ultrasound of the liver, gallbladder, and biliary
system
• Gallbladder scanning
• Liver biopsy
• Liver scanning
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Slide 2
Laboratory and Diagnostic
Examinations
(continued)
• Blood ammonia
• Hepatitis virus studies
• Serum amylase test
• Urine amylase test
• Ultrasound of pancreas
• Computerized tomography of the abdomen
• Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography of
the pancreatic duct (ERCP)
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Slide 3
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cirrhosis

Etiology/pathophysiology
• Chronic, degenerative disease of the liver
• Scar tissue restricts the flow of blood to the liver
• Types of cirrhosis




Laennec’s cirrhosis
Postnecrotic cirrhosis
Primary biliary cirrhosis
Secondary biliary cirrhosis
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Slide 4
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cirrhosis (continued)

Etiology/pathophysiology (continued)
• Alteration of liver function



Reduced ability to metabolize albumin
Obstruction of portal vein
Increased pressure in veins that drain GI tract
• Complications




Portal hypertension
Ascites
Esophageal varices
Hepatic encephalopathy
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Slide 5
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cirrhosis (continued)

Clinical manifestations/assessment
• Early stages


Abdominal pain
Liver is firm and easy to palpate
• Late stages




Dyspepsia
Changes in bowel habits
Nausea and vomiting
Gradual weight loss
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Slide 6
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cirrhosis (continued)

Clinical manifestations/assessment (continued)
• Late stages (continued)






Ascites
Enlarged spleen
Spider angiomas
Anemia
Bleeding tendencies
Epistaxis
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Slide 7
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cirrhosis (continued)

Clinical manifestations/assessment (continued)
• Late stages (continued)





Purpura
Hematuria
Bleeding gums
Jaundice
Disorientation
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Slide 8
Figure 6-2
(From Lewis, S.M., Heitkemper, M.M., Dirksen, S.R. [2007]. Medical-surgical nursing: assessment and
management of clinical problems. [7th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
Systemic clinical manifestations of liver cirrhosis.
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Slide 9
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cirrhosis (continued)

Medical management/nursing interventions
• Pharmacological management

Antiemetics
o Benadryl and Dramamine
o Contraindicated: Vistaril, Compazine, and Atarax
• Eliminate the cause



Alcohol
Hepatotoxins
Environmental exposure to harmful chemicals
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Slide 10
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cirrhosis (continued)

Medical management/nursing interventions
(continued)
• Diet






Well-balanced
High in calories
Moderate in protein
Low in fat
Low in sodium
Supplemental vitamins and folic acid
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Slide 11
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cirrhosis (continued)

Medical management/nursing interventions
(continued)
• Treatment of complications

Ascites
o Bed rest
o Strict I&O
o Restrict fluids and sodium
o Diuretics: Aldactone, Lasix, HCTZ
o Vitamins K, C, and folic acid supplements
o LeVeen peritoneal-jugular shunt
o Paracentesis
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Slide 12
Figure 6-3
(From Beare, P.G., Myers, J.L. [1998]. Adult health nursing. [3rd ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
LeVeen continuous peritoneal jugular shunt.
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Slide 13
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cirrhosis (continued)

Medical management/nursing interventions
(continued)
• Treatment of complications (continued)

Ruptured esophageal varices
o Maintain airway; establish IV
o Vasopressin drip to control bleeding
o Sengstaken-Blakemore tube
o Endoscopic sclerotherapy
o Portacaval shunt
o Blood transfusion
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Slide 14
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cirrhosis (continued)

Medical management/nursing interventions
(continued)
• Treatment of complications (continued)

Hepatic encephalopathy
o Decrease protein in diet
o Avoid drugs that are detoxified by the liver
o Lactulose
o Neomycin
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Slide 15
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Liver cancer

Etiology and pathology
• Hepatocellular carcinoma most commonly seen
• Cirrhosis of the liver and hepatitis C and B are also
elevated risk factors
• In the United States liver cancer is seen more in people
over age 40
• Metastatic carcinoma of the liver is seen more than
primary liver cancer
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Slide 16
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Liver cancer

Clinical manifestations
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Hepatomegaly
Weight loss
Peripheral edema
Ascites
Portal hypertension
Dull epigastric pain
Jaundice
Anorexia
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Slide 17
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Liver cancer

Diagnostic tests
•
•
•
•
•
•
Liver scan
Ultrasound
CT scan
Magnetic resonance imaging
ERCP
Liver biopsy
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Slide 18
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary
Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Liver cancer

Medical management/nursing interventions
• Palliative care
• Surgery
• Chemotherapy
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Slide 19
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Hepatitis

Etiology/pathophysiology
• Inflammation of the liver resulting from several types of
viral agents or exposure to toxic substances
• Hepatitis A


Most common
Oral-fecal transmission
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Slide 20
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Hepatitis (continued)

Etiology/pathophysiology (continued)
• Hepatitis B

Transmission by contaminated serum; blood transfusion,
contaminated needles, dialysis, or direct contact with
infected body fluids
• Hepatitis C

Transmitted through contaminated needles and blood
transfusions
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Slide 21
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Hepatitis (continued)

Etiology/pathophysiology (continued)
• Hepatitis D

Co-infection with hepatitis B
• Hepatitis E


Fecal contamination of water
Rare in the United States; usually in developing countries
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Slide 22
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Hepatitis (continued)

Clinical manifestations/assessment
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
General malaise
Aching muscles
Photophobia
Headaches
Chills
Abdominal pain
Dyspepsia
Nausea
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Slide 23
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Hepatitis (continued)

Clinical manifestations/assessment (continued)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Diarrhea/constipation
Pruritus
Hepatomegaly
Enlarged lymph nodes
Weight loss
Jaundice
Dark amber urine
Clay-colored stools
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Slide 24
Figure 6-5
(From Kamal, A., Brockelhurst, J.C. [1991]. Color atlas of geriatric medicine. [3rd ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby-Year
Book—Europe.)
Severe jaundice.
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Slide 25
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Hepatitis (continued)

Medical management/nursing interventions
• Treat symptoms
• Small, frequent meals

Low-fat, high-carbohydrate
• IV fluids for dehydration
• Vitamin C, vitamin B–complex, vitamin K
• Avoid unnecessary medications, especially sedatives
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Slide 26
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Hepatitis (continued)

Medical management/nursing interventions
(continued)
• Gamma globulin or immune serum globulin
• Hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG)

Should be given to anyone exposed to hepatitis B
• Hepatitis B vaccine

Should be given to people identified as high risk for
developing hepatitis B
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Slide 27
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Liver abscesses

Etiology/pathophysiology
• May be single or multiple
• Abscess forms in the liver due to invading bacteria
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Slide 28
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Liver abscesses (continued)

Clinical manifestations/assessment
• Fever
• Chills
• Abdominal pain and tenderness in the right upper
quadrant
• Hepatomegaly
• Jaundice
• Anemia
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Slide 29
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Liver abscesses (continued)

Diagnostic tests
•
•
•
•

Radiograph
Ultrasound
CT scan
Liver scan
Medical management/nursing interventions
• IV antibiotic therapy
• Percutaneous drainage of liver abscess
• Open surgical drainage
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Slide 30
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis

Etiology/pathophysiology
• An obstruction, gallstone, or tumor prevents bile from
leaving the gallbladder, and the trapped bile acts as an
irritant, causing inflammation
• Risk factors

Female; American Indian or white; obesity; pregnancy;
diabetes; multiparous women; use of birth control
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Slide 31
Figure 6-6
(from Monahan, F.D., et al. [2007]. Phipps’ medical-surgical nursing: health and illness perspectives. [8th ed.]. St.
Louis: Mosby.)
Common sites of gallstones.
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Slide 32
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis (continued)

Clinical manifestations/assessment
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Indigestion after eating foods high in fat
Severe, colicky pain in the right upper quadrant
Anorexia
Nausea and vomiting
Flatulence
Increased heart and respiratory rates
Diaphoresis
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Slide 33
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis (continued)

Clinical manifestations/assessment (continued)
•
•
•
•
•
Low-grade fever
Elevated WBC
Mild jaundice
Steatorrhea (fatty stool)
Dark amber urine
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Slide 34
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis (continued)

Medical management/nursing interventions
• Mild attacks






Pharmacological management
o Antispasmodic and analgesic medications
o Antibiotics
Bed rest
NG tube to suction
NPO
IV fluids
Dietary recommendations: Avoid spicy foods when
allowed PO intake
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Slide 35
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis (continued)

Medical management/nursing interventions
(continued)
• Lithotripsy
• Cholecystectomy


Laparoscopic
Open
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Slide 36
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Pancreatitis

Etiology/pathophysiology
• Inflammation of the pancreas

Acute or chronic
• Predisposing factors




Alcohol
Trauma
Infectious disease
Certain drugs
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Slide 37
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Pancreatitis (continued)

Clinical manifestations/assessment
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Abdominal pain
Anorexia; nausea and vomiting
Malaise
Low-grade fever
Jaundice
Weight loss
Steatorrhea
Tachycardia
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Slide 38
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Pancreatitis (continued)

Medical management/nursing interventions
• Pharmacological management




•
•
•
•
Antiemetics
Analgesics
Anticholinergics
Antacids
NPO
IV fluids
NG tube
Hyperalimentation
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Slide 39
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cancer of the pancreas

Etiology/pathophysiology
• Unknown
• Risk factors

Cigarette smoking; exposure to chemical carcinogens;
diabetes mellitus; pancreatitis; diet high in meat, fat, and
coffee
• May be metastasis from the lung, stomach, duodenum,
or common bile duct (CBD)
• May live only 4 to 8 months after diagnosis
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Slide 40
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cancer of the pancreas (continued)

Clinical manifestations/assessment
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anorexia
Fatigue
Nausea and flatulence
Change in stools
Steady, dull, aching pain in the epigastric area
Weight loss
Jaundice
Onset of diabetes mellitus
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Slide 41
Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Cancer of the pancreas (continued)

Medical management/nursing interventions
• Surgery


Whipple procedure
Total pancreatectomy with resection of parts of the GI
tract
• Chemotherapy
• Radiation
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Slide 42
Figure 6-9
(From Lewis, S.M., Heitkemper, M.M., Dirksen, S.R. [2007]. Medical-surgical nursing: assessment and
management of clinical problems. [7th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
Whipple’s procedure, or radical pancreaticoduodenectomy.
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Slide 43
Nursing Process
• Nursing diagnoses






Activity intolerance
Breathing pattern,
ineffective
Fluid volume, deficient
Home maintenance,
impaired
Injury, risk for
Knowledge, deficient

Noncompliance
 Nutrition, imbalanced,
less than body
requirements
 Pain, acute/chronic
 Powerlessness
 Skin integrity, impaired
 Thought processes,
disturbed
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Slide 44