Chapter 28
America on the World Stage
1899-1909
On February 4, 1899, the Filipinos erupted in rebellion against the occupying United States forces after
the Senate refused to pass a bill giving the Filipinos their independence. The insurrection was led by
Emilio Aguinaldo.
"Little Brown Brothers" in the Philippines
American soldiers as well as Filipino guerillas resorted to brutal fighting tactics.
The backbone of the Filipino rebellion was broken in 1901 when American soldiers captured Emilio
Aguinaldo.
President McKinley appointed the Philippine Commission in 1899 to set up a Filipino
government. William H. Taft, who referred to the Filipinos to "little brown brothers," led the body in
1900. He genuinely liked the Filipinos while the American soldiers did not.
President McKinley's plan of "benevolent assimilation" of the Filipinos was very slow and involved
improving roads, sanitation, and public health. The plan developed economic ties and set a school
system with English as the 2nd language. It was ill received by the Filipinos who preferred liberty over
assimilation.
Hinging the Open Door in China
Following China's defeat by Japan in 1894-1895, Russia and Germany moved into China. The American
public, fearing that Chinese markets would be monopolized by Europeans, demanded that the U.S.
Government do something. Secretary of State John Hay dispatched to all the great powers a
communication known as the Open Door note. He urged the powers to announce that in their leaseholds
or spheres of influence they would respect certain Chinese rights and the ideal of fair competition. The
note asked all those who did not have thieving designs to stand up and be counted. Italy was the only
major power to accept the Open Door unconditionally and Russia was the only major power not to accept
it.
In 1900, a super-patriotic group in China known as the "Boxers" killed hundreds of foreigners. A
multinational rescue force came in and stopped the rebellion.
After the failed rebellion, Secretary Hay declared in 1900 that the Open Door would embrace the territorial
integrity of China as well as its commercial integrity.
Imperialism or Bryanism in 1900?
President McKinley was the Republican presidential nominee for the election of 1900 because he had
led the country through a war, acquired rich real estate, established the gold standard, and brought
prosperity to the nation. McKinley and the Republican Party supported the gold standard and
imperialism. They proclaimed that "Bryanism" was the paramount election issue. This meant that Bryan
would destroy the nation's prosperity once he took office with his free-silver policy and other "dangerous"
ideas.
Theodore Roosevelt was nominated as the vice president after the political bosses of New York (where
Roosevelt was governor) found it hard to continue their "businesses" with the headstrong governor. They
wanted Roosevelt elected as vice president so that Roosevelt would no longer pose an authority problem
to the political bosses.
William Jennings Bryan was the Democratic presidential candidate for the election. Bryan and the
Democratic Party supported the silver standard and anti-imperialism. They proclaimed that the
paramount election issue was Republican overseas imperialism.
McKinley and the Republican Party won the election of 1900.
TR: Brandisher of the Big Stick
In September 1901, a deranged anarchist murdered President McKinley, and Theodore Roosevelt took
over the presidency.
Roosevelt was a direct actionist in that he believed that the president should lead and keep things moving
forward. He had no real respect for the checks and balances system among the 3 branches of
government. He felt that he may take any action in the general interest that is not specifically forbidden
by the laws of the Constitution.
Colombia Blocks the Canal
In order for ships to cross quickly from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, a canal had to be built
across the Central American isthmus. There were initial legal issues blocking the construction of this
canal. By the terms of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, made with Britain in 1850, the U.S. could not gain
exclusive control over a route for the canal. But because of friendly relations with Britain, Britain signed
the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty in 1901, which gave the U.S. a helping hand to build the canal and rights to
fortify it.
Many Americans favored the Nicaraguan route for the canal, but Congress decided on the Panama route
for the canal in June 1902 after the New Panama Canal Company dropped the price of its holdings
significantly.
Colombia stood in the way of the construction of the canal. After a treaty to buy land for the canal had
been rejected by the Colombian senate, President Roosevelt, who was eager to win the upcoming
election, demanded that the canal be built without Colombia's consent.
Uncle Sam Creates Puppet Panama
On November 3, 1903, Panamanians, who feared the United States would choose the Nicaraguan route
for the canal, made a successful revolution led by Bunau-Varilla. Bunau-Varilla became the Panamanian
minister to the United States and signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty in Washington. The treaty gave
the U.S. control of a 10-mile zone around the proposed Panama Canal.
Completing the Canal and Appeasing Colombia
The so-called rape of Panama marked a downward lurch in U.S relations with Latin America.
President Roosevelt defended himself against all charges of doing anything wrong. He claimed that
Colombia had wronged the United States by not permitting itself to be benefited by the construction of the
canal.
In 1904 the construction of the Panama Canal began, and in 1914 it was completed at a cost of $400
million.
TR's Perversion of Monroe's Doctrine
Several nations of Latin America were in debt to European countries. President Roosevelt feared that if
the European nations (mainly the Germany and Britain) got their feet in the door of Latin America, then
they might remain there, in violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Roosevelt therefore created a policy known
as "preventive intervention." The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine declared that in the
event of future monetary problems of Latin American countries with European countries, the U.S. could
pay off the Latin American counties' debts to keep European nations out of Latin America.
Latin American countries began to hate the Monroe Doctrine for it had become the excuse for numerous
U.S. interventions in Latin America. In actuality, President Roosevelt was the one to be blamed for the
interventions.
Roosevelt on the World Stage
Japan began war with Russia in 1904 after Russia failed to withdraw troops from Manchuria and
Korea. Japan was defeating Russia in the war when Japan's supply of troops began to run low. Japan
therefore asked President Roosevelt to step in and sponsor peace negotiations. Roosevelt agreed and in
1905 forced through an agreement in which the Japanese received no compensation for the losses and
only the southern half of Sakhalin.
Because of the treaty, friendship with Russia faded away and Japan became a rival with America in Asia.
Japanese Laborers in California
When the Japanese government lifted its ban on its citizens emigrating in 1884, thousands of Japanese
were recruited to work in California. Japanese immigrants were confronted with racist hostility by whites.
In 1906, San Francisco's school board segregated the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean students to make
room for white students. The Japanese saw this action as an insult and threatened with war.
President Roosevelt invited the entire San Francisco Board of Education to the White House to settle the
dispute. TR broke the deadlock and the Californians were persuaded to repeal the segregation and to
accept what came to be known as the "Gentlemen's Agreement." The Japanese agreed to stop the flow
of immigrants to the United States.
In 1908, the Root-Takahira agreement was reached with Japan. The U.S. and Japan pledged
themselves to respect each other's territorial possessions.