Immanuel Kant
and the Ethics of Duty
Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D.
University of San Diego
3/23/2016
Director, The Values Institute
©Lawrence M. Hinman
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Overview
Part I. The Ethics of Duty
 Part II. Universalizability and the
Categorical Imperative
Also see these presentations:
 Kant and Respect
 The Kantian Heritage: An
Assessment

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©Lawrence M. Hinman
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Part I.
The Ethics of Duty
More than any
other philosopher,
Kant emphasized the
way in which the moral
life was centered on
duty.
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Two Conceptions of Duty

Duty as following orders
– The Adolph Eichmann model
– Duty is external
– Duty is imposed by others

Duty as freely imposing obligation on one’s own
self
– The Kantian model
– Duty is internal
– We impose duty on ourselves

The second conception of duty is much more
morally advanced than the first.
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Duty and Following Orders

“I had known the Categorical Imperative,
but it was in a nutshell, in a summarized
form. I suppose it could be summarized
as, ‘Be loyal to the laws, be a disciplined
person, live an orderly life, do not come
into conflict with laws’—that more or less
was the whole essence of that law for the
use of the little man.”
Adolph Eichmann
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Duty and Self-Interest

The example of Edmund Ross
– He voted against Jackson’s
impeachment as a matter of duty

The Grocer Example
– The grocer with regular customers
might be honest just out of self-interest.

Duty and Utility: The Suicide
Example
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Duty and Inclination

Kant was mistrustful of inclinations
(Neigungen) as motivations
– This was part of his view of the physical
world as causally determined

Saw feelings as
– Unreliable
– Passive
– Phenomenal
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The Man of Duty
“Suppose then that the mind of this friend of man were overclouded by
sorrows of his own which extinguished all sympathy with the fate of others,
but that he still had power to help those in distress, though no longer stirred
by the need of others because sufficiently occupied with his own; and
suppose that, when no longer moved by any inclination, he tears himself out
of this deadly insensibility and does the action without any inclination for the
sake of duty alone; then for the first time his action has its genuine moral
worth. Still further: if nature had implanted little sympathy in this or that
man’s heart; if (being in other respects an honest fellow) he were cold in
temperament and indifferent to the sufferings of others—perhaps because,
being endowed with the special gift of patience and robust endurance in his
own sufferings, he assumed the like in others or even demanded it; if such a
man (who would in truth not be the worst product of nature) were not exactly
fashioned by her to be a philanthropist, would he not still find in himself a
source from which he might draw a worth far higher than any that a goodnatured temperament can have? Assuredly he would. It is precisely in this
that the worth of character begins to show—a moral worth and beyond all
comparison the highest—namely, that he does good, not from inclination, but
from duty.”
--Groundwork of a Metaphysics of Morals
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Criticisms of the Ethics of Duty

Moral Minimalism
– Requirements are not heartfelt

Moral Alienation
– Alienated from feelings

Duty and “Just Following Orders”
– This is not Kant’s genuine position
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Part II.
Universalizability and the
Categorical Imperative
Central insight:
 What is fair for one is fair for all
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Living by Rules

Most of us live by rules much of the
time. Some of these are what Kant
called Categorical Imperatives—
unconditional commands that are
binding on everyone at all times.
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Types of Imperatives

Hypothetical Imperative:
– “If you want to drive to UCLA from San
Diego, take the 405 freeway.”
– Structure: if…then…

Categorical Imperative
– “Always tell the truth”
– Unconditional, applicable at all times
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Maxims

Maxims, according to Kant, are subjective
rules that guide action.
– Relevant Act Description
– Sufficient Generality

All actions have maxims, such as,
– Never lie to your friends.
– Never act in a way that would make your
parents ashamed of you.
– Always watch out for number one.
– It’s ok to cheat if you need to.
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Categorical Imperatives:
Universality

“Always act in such a way that the
maxim of your action can be willed
as a universal law of humanity.”
--Immanuel Kant
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Categorical Imperatives:
Respect

“Always treat humanity, whether in
yourself or in other people, as an end
in itself and never as a mere means.”
--Immanuel Kant
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Categorical Imperative:
Publicity

Always act in such a way that you
would not be embarrassed to have
your actions described on the front
page of The New York Times.
--Probably not Bill Clinton
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Categorical Imperatives:
Another example


“I know the questions to ask. It’s the
answers I’m after. And what about
learning how to live? Isn’t that
philosophy too? What’s yours?”
The reply had come easily but, she had
thought, with honesty. “To get as much
happiness as I can. Not to harm others.
Not to whine. In that order.”
Adam Dalgliesh, in reply to Kate Miskin’s question
P. D. James, A Certain Justice
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Classroom Exercises

Most of us live by rules, obedience to
which we take as a duty.
– What are the most important rules you
live by?
– What were the most important rules in
your family?
– What rules have you rejected as you
have gotten older?
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Lying


Is it possible to universalize a maxim that
permits lying?
What is the maxim?
– It’s ok to cheat when you want/need to?

Can this consistently be willed as a
universal law?
– No, it undermines itself, destroying the rational
expectation of trust upon which it depends.
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Academic Cheating


Cheating involves not playing by the
rules. Is it possible for the cheater to
will his/her maxim as a universal
law?
No, because then others (including
the teacher) could refuse to follow
the rules as well, failing the cheater
even with a good grade.
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Exceptions

Are exceptions possible for Kant?
– Yes, as long as they can be consistently
universalized

Examples
– The speeding car
• We can universalize an exception for something like
ambulance drivers
– The Gestapo example
• Can we universalize a maxim to deceive in order to
save innocent lives?
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Kant
and the Alleged Right to Tell a Lie
In an essay written near the end of his
life, Kant maintained that you are
never justified in telling a lie.
– Franco-Prussian rivalry
– Beliefs about causality—if you do the
right thing, you are not responsible for
bad outcomes.
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Respect and Using People

Act in such a way that you always
treat humanity, whether in your own
person or in the person of any other,
never simply as a means, but always
at the same time as an end. Kant,
Groundwork of a Metaphysics of Morals
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Respect for Persons



Respect for self as well as for others.
Instruction about how to act, not how
to feel.
Some element of using people as
means is permissible, only using
them exclusively as means is
prohibited.
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Using People as Means



Syphilis Experiments
Factory closings
Firing longtime employees
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Respect Requirements


Respect requires action
Do not take away conditions of moral agency or
autonomy from others
– 1. access to information necessary for rational
decision/autonomy
– 2. freedom to act on basis of information
– Recognize unique value of each individual.
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What to respect?

Person’s ability to reason.
Not animals, they have no reason. Indirect
duty to respect animals because of the
effect lack of respect would have on us.
No direct duty to respect feelings.

Create space for other voices – Gilligan.


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Self-Respect




Examples of failure to respect
oneself:
The Uncle tom
The self-deprecator
The deferential wife.
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Strengths of Kant’s theory



Doing one’s duty deserves
admiration.
Duty is evenhanded – treat everyone
in the same way
Respect other persons
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Weaknesses of Kant’s theory

Neglect of moral integration – duty and
inclination need to be integrated along with split
between reason and emotion


Role of emotions neglected
Consequences ignored
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Conclusion


Kant saw that morality must be fair
and evenhanded.
The Kantian path offers a certain
kind of moral safety in an uncertain
world.
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