Natural History of (Terrestrial) Vertebrates Chapter #1 – The Diversity, Classification, and Evolution of Vertebrates Introduction to Vertebrates Phylogenetic systematics (cladistics) What is a Vertebrate? Common Ancestor Answer: Classification of organisms that share similar derived characteristics Domain: Eukarya (Eukaryotic cells = “true nucleus”) Kingdom: Animalia (Multi-cellular heterotrophs) Phylum: Chordata • • • • Notochord (Flexible rod; skeletal support) Dorsal, hollow nerve cord (Brain / spinal column) Pharyngeal slits (openings in throat; water passage) Muscular, post-anal tail (Balance / propulsion) Subphylum: Urochordata • Tunicates (sea squirts) Subphylum: Cephalochordata • Lancelets Introduction to Vertebrates Phylogenetic systematics (cladistics) What is a Vertebrate? Common Ancestor Answer: Classification of organisms that share similar derived characteristics Domain: Eukarya (Eukaryotic cells = “true nucleus”) Kingdom: Animalia (Multi-cellular heterotrophs) Phylum: Chordata • • • • Increased body size and activity level Notochord (Flexible rod; skeletal support) Dorsal, hollow nerve cord (Brain / spinal column) Pharyngeal slits (openings in throat; water passage) Muscular, post-anal tail (Balance / propulsion) • Vertebral column present (bone / cartilage) Subphylum: Vertebrata • High degree of cephalization • Cranium; tripartite brain; multi-cellular sense organs • Specialized organ systems • e.g., closed circulatory system; specialized kidneys Classification of Vertebrates: Introduction to Vertebrates • 57,000 species (100x extinct) • New discoveries weekly Introduction to Vertebrates Giant Forest Hog (Kenya – 1904) Bonobo (Congo – 1929) Komodo Dragon (Komodo - 1912) Giant Panda (China – 1932) Coelocanth (Deep Sea – 1998) Megamouth (Deep Sea - 1976) Saola (Vietnam - 1992) Introduction to Vertebrates Present ~ 5 mya ERA PERIOD Cenozoic Earth History Critical for Understanding Natural History of Vertebrates: Quaternary ~ 65 mya ~ 205 mya Cretaceous Mesozoic ~ 145 mya ~ 250 mya ~ 440 mya ~ 490 mya ~ 540 mya Triassic Carboniferous Paleozoic ~ 420 mya Jurassic Permian ~ 290 mya ~ 350 mya Tertiary Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian Precambrian ~ 4,600 mya Introduction to Vertebrates The Paleozoic world very different from the one we currently know: ERA PERIOD Cenozoic Present Quaternary Tertiary ~ 65 mya Mesozoic Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic ~ 250 mya Permian • 6 major land masses including Laurentia (North America) and Gondwana (Current Southern Hemisphere countries) Paleozoic Carboniferous Devonian Climate: Silurian • Sea levels at / near all-time high; high levels of CO2 • Greenhouse Effect: hot & dry climate Ordovician Cambrian Precambrian Continental Geography: ~ 540 mya Terrestrial Ecosystem (unsuitable conditions…): • Wet habitat = algae / lichens / fungi • Land = green algae Introduction to Vertebrates The Paleozoic world very different from the one we currently know: ERA PERIOD Continental Geography: Cenozoic Present Quaternary Continents beginning to drift together Tertiary ~ 65 mya Mesozoic Cretaceous Gondwana (south pole) Jurassic Triassic Laurasia: Laurentia + Baltica + Siberia ~ 250 mya Permian (along equator) Paleozoic Carboniferous Climate: Devonian • Cooler, moister conditions than Cambrian Silurian • Major glaciations; falling CO2 levels Ordovician Cambrian Precambrian Terrestrial Ecosystem: ~ 540 mya • Stratified forest communities of vascular plants (wet places…) • Terrestrial animals = millipedes / springtails / mites • No terrestrial vertebrates Introduction to Vertebrates The Paleozoic world very different from the one we currently know: ERA PERIOD Continental Geography: Cenozoic Present Quaternary Tertiary Continents drift together to form Pangaea (Permian) ~ 65 mya Mesozoic Cretaceous (36% of Earth’s surface) Jurassic Triassic ~ 250 mya Permian Figure 7.4 Paleozoic Carboniferous Climate: Devonian • Climate highly differentiated across super-continent Silurian • Due to glaciations (also oscillated sea levels) Terrestrial Ecosystem: Ordovician Cambrian Precambrian • Broadleaf forests appear (similar in appearance to those today) ~ 540 mya • Gymnosperms – not angiosperms • Arthropods flourished (Detritivores / herbivores / carnivores) • Terrestrial vertebrates appear / diversify (non-amniotes / amniotes) Introduction to Vertebrates Present ~ 5 mya ERA PERIOD Cenozoic Earth History Critical for Understanding Natural History of Vertebrates: Quaternary ~ 65 mya ~ 205 mya ~ 250 mya ~ 440 mya ~ 490 mya ~ 540 mya Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian Precambrian ~ 4,600 mya Age of Dinosaurs Triassic Carboniferous Paleozoic ~ 420 mya Jurassic Permian ~ 290 mya ~ 350 mya Diversification of mammals and birds (~ 57 mya) Cretaceous Mesozoic ~ 145 mya Tertiary First reptiles (~ 300 mya) First amphibians (~ 370 mya) Diversification of fish (~ 420 mya) Introduction to Vertebrates Earth History Critical for Understanding Natural History of Vertebrates: Continued continental drift strong influence on vertebrate evolution: 1) Climate: • Location of land masses (Mesozoic = tropical / Cenozoic = temperate) • Ocean circulation (e.g., arctic ocean isolated = lack of warm currents) • Sea level (epicontinental seas = maritime climate inland) Western Interior Sea Introduction to Vertebrates Earth History Critical for Understanding Natural History of Vertebrates: Continued continental drift strong influence on vertebrate evolution: 1) Climate: • Location of land masses (Mesozoic = tropical / Cenozoic = temperate) • Ocean circulation (e.g., arctic ocean isolated = lack of warm currents) • Sea level (epicontinental seas = maritime climate inland) 2) Land Bridges • Connections of land between continents (attach / detach) Marsupial Migration Bering Land Bridge (e.g., human migration) Introduction to Vertebrates Present ~ 5 mya ERA PERIOD Cenozoic Earth History Critical for Understanding Natural History of Vertebrates: Quaternary ~ 65 mya ~ 205 mya ~ 250 mya ~ 440 mya ~ 490 mya ~ 540 mya Triassic Carboniferous Paleozoic ~ 420 mya Jurassic Permian ~ 290 mya ~ 350 mya Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian Precambrian ~ 4,600 mya Mass Extinction Cretaceous Mesozoic ~ 145 mya Tertiary History of life punctuated by mass extinctions: • 90% marine species Extensive Diversification Permian Mass Extinction • Massive volcanic eruptions in Siberia (lava flows = ½ area of United States) • Gas release = Global warming (~ 6º C) Underwater Methyl hydrate melting Positive Feedback Methane release Global environment disrupted (100,000’s years) Introduction to Vertebrates Present ~ 5 mya ERA PERIOD Cenozoic Earth History Critical for Understanding Natural History of Vertebrates: Quaternary ~ 65 mya ~ 205 mya ~ 250 mya ~ 440 mya ~ 490 mya ~ 540 mya Jurassic Triassic Carboniferous Paleozoic ~ 420 mya Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian Precambrian ~ 4,600 mya Extensive Diversification Permian ~ 290 mya ~ 350 mya Mass Extinction Cretaceous Mesozoic ~ 145 mya Tertiary History of life punctuated by mass extinctions: • 90% marine species • 50% marine species; dinosaurs The K - T Meteorite: Permian Mass Extinction “A dinosaur’s worst nightmare…” • Massive volcanic eruptions in Siberia (lava flows = ½ area of United States) If a 10km diameter object impacted at the point at • Gas release = Global warming (~ 6º C)which it struck it would have a velocity of roughly 100,000 km/h. At this velocity there would have been an initial blast which would have destroyed everything Underwater hydrate meltingwithin a radius of between 400 and 500 km. At the same time large fires would have been started by the intense shock wave which would have traveled long distances. Trillions of tons of debris (dust, gases and Methane release water vapour) would have been thrown into the atmosphere when the object vaporized. Many enormous tidal waves would be started. Along with the tidal waves the blast would also start a chain reaction of earthquakes and volcanic activity. There would have also been very high winds caused by the blast. In the days and weeks following the impact the cloud of debris would have been carried over large distances by the post blast high winds. This will have caused months of darkness and a decrease in global temperatures. After this there would have been an increase in temperatures caused by the large amounts of CO2 released by what would have been global fires. Global environment disrupted Eventually this would cause chemical reactions that would (100,000’s result in the years) formation of acid rains. Introduction to Vertebrates Early vertebrates believed to have evolved in marine environment: • Earliest vertebrate fossils located in marine sediment • All non-vertebrate chordates / other deuterostomes exclusively marine Gnathostomes (“jawed mouth”) (mid Ordovician period) Life History: Agnathans (“jawless” vertebrates) • Entirely marine • Bottom-dwelling scavengers Morphology: Retains primitive vertebrate features • Round, jawless mouth (e.g., [body fluid] similar to [seawater]) • Elongated, scale-less • Degenerate eyes; tentacles Hagfish (Myxinoidea) • Slime glands (flanks) (Carboniferous* period) • Anti-predator (gels H2O) 1st Vertebrates (early Cambrian period) Feed via tearing off tidbits… Introduction to Vertebrates Yummmm… Introduction to Vertebrates Early vertebrates believed to have evolved in marine environment: • Earliest vertebrate fossils located in marine sediment • All non-vertebrate chordates / other deuterostomes exclusively marine Gnathostomes (“jawed mouth”) (mid Ordovician period) Life History: Agnathans (“jawless” vertebrates) • Entirely marine • Bottom-dwelling scavengers Retains primitive vertebrate features Morphology: (e.g., [body fluid] similar to [seawater]) • Round, jawless mouth Table 3.1 – Vertebrate Life • Elongated, scale-less • Degenerate eyes; tentacles Hagfish (Myxinoidea) • Slime glands (flanks) (Carboniferous* period) • Anti-predator (gels H2O) • Cartilaginous skeleton • Lack vertebrae Harvested for skin (“eel-skin” leather) 1st Vertebrates (early Cambrian period) Feed via tearing off tidbits… Introduction to Vertebrates Early vertebrates believed to have evolved in marine environment: • Earliest vertebrate fossils located in marine sediment • All non-vertebrate chordates / other deuterostomes exclusively marine Gnathostomes (“jawed mouth”) Agnathans (“jawless” vertebrates) (mid Ordovician period) Life History: • Marine / Freshwater (anadromous) Lamprey (Petromyzontoidea) • Parasites (fluid-feeders) (Carboniferous* period) Hagfish (Myxinoidea) (Carboniferous* period) 1st Vertebrates (early Cambrian period) Introduction to Vertebrates Early vertebrates believed to have evolved in marine environment: • Earliest vertebrate fossils located in marine sediment • All non-vertebrate chordates / other deuterostomes exclusively marine Gnathostomes (“jawed mouth”) Morphology: (mid Ordovician period) • Round, jawless mouth Agnathans (“jawless” vertebrates) • Elongated, scale-less • Cartilaginous skeleton • Vertebral elements present Life History: • Marine / Freshwater (anadromous) Lamprey (Petromyzontoidea) • Parasites (fluid-feeders) (Carboniferous* period) Hagfish (Myxinoidea) (Carboniferous* period) Devastated Great Lakes fisheries 1st Vertebrates (early Cambrian period) Introduction to Vertebrates Derived Features of Gnathostomes: 1) Jaws: Suspension feeders / Parasites Expansion of pharynx; Mouth closure to prevent food escape Raptorial feeders • Derived from anterior branchial arches (gill supports) • Benefits: 1) New feeding behaviors (e.g., grasping / biting / tearing) 2) New food resources (e.g. herbivory) 3) Manipulation of environment (e.g., digging holes / carrying objects) 4) Improved gill ventilation (primary driving force?) 2) Paired Appendages: • Benefits: 1) Control of body position (primarily pitch) in water (active, predatory fish…) 2) Defense (spines); Behavior (e.g., reproductive) Stonefish Introduction to Vertebrates Early vertebrates believed to have evolved in marine environment: Tetrapods (“jawed mouth”) (late Devonian period) Gnathostomes (“jawed mouth”) (mid Ordovician period) Introduction to Vertebrates Early vertebrates believed to have evolved in marine environment: Tetrapods (“jawed mouth”) Life History: (late Devonian period) • Primarily marine • Suspension feeders / carnivores • Internal fertilization Morphology: • Cartilaginous endoskeleton (derived) • Scales (Placoid) • Well developed jaws / paired fins 1) Sharks • Fusiform (powerful; maneuverability) • Acute vision / smell Chondricthyes (“Cartilage fish”) (late Silurian period) Gnathostomes (“jawed mouth”) (mid Ordovician period) Introduction to Vertebrates Early vertebrates believed to have evolved in marine environment: Tetrapods (“jawed mouth”) Life History: (late Devonian period) • Primarily marine • Suspension feeders / carnivores • Internal fertilization Morphology: • Cartilaginous endoskeleton (derived) • Scales (Placoid) Skate • Well developed jaws / paired fins 2) Skates / Rays • Flattened, bottom dwellers • Enlarged pectoral fins (“fly” through H2O) Chondricthyes (“Cartilage fish”) Gnathostomes (“jawed mouth”) (mid Ordovician period) (late Silurian period) Ray Introduction to Vertebrates Early vertebrates believed to have evolved in marine environment: Tetrapods (“jawed mouth”) Life History: (late Devonian period) • Primarily marine • Suspension feeders / carnivores • Internal fertilization Morphology: • Cartilaginous endoskeleton (derived) • Scales (Placoid) • Well developed jaws / paired fins 3) Ratfish (Chimera) • Deep water dwellers Chondricthyes (“Cartilage fish”) • Little known of natural history (late Silurian period) Gnathostomes (“jawed mouth”) (mid Ordovician period) Introduction to Vertebrates Early vertebrates believed to have evolved in marine environment: Tetrapods (“jawed mouth”) (late Devonian period) Osteichthyes (“Bony fish”) (late Silurian period) Chondricthyes (“Cartilage fish”) (late Silurian period) Gnathostomes (“jawed mouth”) (mid Ordovician period) Introduction to Vertebrates Early vertebrates believed to have evolved in marine environment: Most diverse vertebrate group (~ 30,000 species) Tetrapods (“jawed mouth”) (late Devonian period) Osteichthyes (“Bony fish”) (late Silurian period) Life History: • Marine / Freshwater 1) Ray-finned Fish (actinopterygii) • Fins supported by flexible rods • Increased maneuverability 1) Lobe-finned Fish (Sarcopterygii) • Fleshy fins supported by bone • “Walking” underwater • Diverse feeding strategies • External / Internal fertilization Morphology: • Ossified endoskeleton (Calcium phosphate) • Flattened, bony scales • Mucus glands (drag reduction / protection) • Operculum (gill covering – stationary breathing) • Swim bladder (motionless buoyancy) Gnathostomes (“jawed mouth”) (mid Ordovician period) Introduction to Vertebrates Demands of terrestrial life different than aquatic life… 1) Density: H2O is 800x denser than air (Ramification = support systems) Fish: • Remain neutrally buoyant (same density as H2O) A) Swim bladder (Bony fish) B) Store oils in liver (cartilaginous fish) C) Store oils / lipids in swim bladder / body (Deep sea fishes) Terrestrial Vertebrates: • Require modified skeleton / musculature (counter gravity) 1) Bones designed for strength (compact bone) and weight (spongy bone) 2) Axial skeleton modifications (fish = flexibility) • Vertebral processes (zygaphophyses) resist twisting & bending • Distinct vertebral regions (e.g., lumbar = support vertebrae) • Ribs stout and prominently developed 3) Axial muscles differentiated and enlarged (postural support) 4) Limb girdles enlarged; limb location shifted (e.g., under body) Introduction to Vertebrates Demands of terrestrial life different than aquatic life… 2) Viscosity: H2O has 18x viscosity of air (Ramification = locomotion) Fish: Paired fins used for steering, braking, and providing lift • Have stream-lined shape (minimize drag) • Small scales / loss of scales; mucus production • Utilize undulations of body / tail to “push” against viscous water 1) Anguilliform 2) Carangiform 3) Ostraciiform Majority of body undulates Caudal region undulates Caudal fin undulates Terrestrial Vertebrates: • Friction must be generated between limbs and ground: • Primitive mode = axial flexion with limbs acting as holdfasts • Lateral Sequence Gait: 3 of 4 limbs in contact with ground (tripod) Introduction to Vertebrates Demands of terrestrial life different than aquatic life… 2) Viscosity: H2O has 18x viscosity of air (Ramification = locomotion) • Friction must be generated between limbs and ground: • Derived mode = limbs held underneath body (limb flexion) Amble / Pace Fore- and hind feet on same side swung in unison Avoid tangling of long limbs Keeps line of support under center of gravity Trot Feet diagonally opposite move in unison Bound All four limbs strike ground in unison Excellent stability; Excellent clearance Introduction to Vertebrates Demands of terrestrial life different than aquatic life… 2) Viscosity: H2O has 18x viscosity of air (Ramification = locomotion) • Friction must be generated between limbs and ground: • Derived mode = limbs held underneath body (limb flexion) Ricochet Two limbs strike ground in unison Half Bound Hind legs strike together; forelegs = lead / trail pattern Gallop / Canter Fore / hind feet show lead / trail pattern (asymmetrical) Introduction to Vertebrates Demands of terrestrial life different than aquatic life… 3) Oxygen Content: H2O contains ¼ [O2] of air (Ramification = respiratory systems) Fish: • Gills: Specialized respiratory structures for capturing O2 Flow of water unidirectional (viscosity issues…) • Buccal Pumping • Ram Ventilation Counter-current exchange ( efficiency) • Lungs / Accessory Structures: ([O2] very low) • Facultative Air Breathers = supplement gills as necessary • Obligatory Air Breathers = must supplement gills or drown Introduction to Vertebrates Demands of terrestrial life different than aquatic life… 3) Oxygen Content: H2O contains ¼ [O2] of air (Ramification = respiratory systems) Terrestrial Vertebrates: • Air easier medium for respiration than water: 1) Low density / low viscosity = energetically feasible tidal ventilation 2) High [O2] = reduced volume of air needed to supply O2 • Ventilation strategies: 1) Positive Pressure: Air “swallowed”; pushed into lungs (shrink oral cavity) 2) Negative Pressure: Thoracic cavity expanded; air “pulled” into lungs Introduction to Vertebrates Sensory Systems: Vision Smell / Taste Mechanical Fish B B A Tetrapod A B A Tetrapods can see further with less distortion Receptors in head region detect dissolved / volatilized chemicals Lateral line System Auditory System Left Right Introduction to Vertebrates Introduction to Vertebrates Sensory Systems: Vision Smell / Taste Mechanical Electroreception Fish B B A A Tetrapod A B A D Tetrapods can See further with less distortion Rely on hair cells to detect vibrations in water / air Receptors in head region detect dissolved / volatilized chemicals Function: Prey Location Mate Identification Water conducts electricity – air does not Introduction to Vertebrates Origin and Radiation of Tetrapods: • Related to lobe-finned fish (sarcopterygians – lung fish) • Anatomy suggests that early tetrapods were aquatic (e.g., internal, fish-like gills) How does a terrestrial animal evolve in water? Thoughts of foresight not an option! Stem Tetrapod (“four limbs”) Acanthostega (late devonian period) Ichthyostega Introduction to Vertebrates Origin and Radiation of Tetrapods: • Related to lobe-finned fish (sarcopterygians – lung fish) • Anatomy suggests that early tetrapods were aquatic (e.g., internal, fish-like gills) How does a terrestrial animal evolve in water? Classic Theory: Dries up Migration Problems: 1) Current lung fish cope with problem by estivating 2) New pond = continuation in aquatic lifestyle Current Theory = Juvenile lob-finned fish aggregated in shallow-water habitats • Limbs with digits / ankle / wrists = navigation / manipulation of bottom vegetation • Strengthening of girdles = predatory lunges under water • Development of distinct neck = lift snout out of water Stem Tetrapod (“four limbs”) Acanthostega (late devonian period) Ichthyostega Introduction to Vertebrates Origin and Radiation of Tetrapods: Amniotes Lissamphibians (early Carboniferous period) (major radiation = Permian) (extant amphibians) Majority extinct by mid Persian (V) Table 9.1 ? Temnospondyl (aquatic) Pages 206 - 211 ? ? Lepospondyl Batrachomorphs (“Frog form”) Anthracosaur (Terrestrial) Reptilomorph (“Reptile form”) Stem Tetrapod (“four limbs”) (late devonian period) ?