HL367 Major Project W13
Inspiring & Nurturing
Confident Heroic Able Resourceful Girls Everywhere
Jennifer Westman
Janelle Brkic
Alisa Fox
Our mission is to promote girls’ self-efficacy for social
situations through education
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 1……………………………………………………………3
SECTION 2……………………………………………………………7
SECTION 3…………………………………………………………..32
SECTION 4…………………………………………………………..50
SECTION 5…………………………………………………………..53
SECTION 6…………………………………………………………..55
SECTION 7…………………………………………………………..56
SECTION 8…………………………………………………………..57
SECTION 9…………………………………………………………..59
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Section 1: Introduction and Direction
My name is Jennifer Westman and I am a Community Health Education
major at Northern Michigan University. I am a married, nontraditional student and have
two young children, a son and a daughter who mean the world to me. Our mission is
important to me because as a mother of a young girl, I believe there should be
somewhere she should be able to turn to find the answers she seeks in different
situations. In a perfect world that would be me, but in reality this is not always the case.
Girls look to different sources to find the answers they are looking for and sometimes
these answers may not be the correct ones. I made quite a few mistakes when I was
younger because I didn’t know where to find answers to assist solving my problems in
social situations and I do not want my daughter to find herself in the same situations I
experienced. Every girl should know and understand how to handle the various social
situations and/or problems that exist today and this is why this topic is so important to
me.
My name is Janelle Brkic. I plan to graduate from Northern Michigan University
in May with a bachelor’s degree in Community Health Education. I am the single parent
of my sixteen-year old daughter. I became passionate about promoting self-efficacy in
girls primarily as a result of situations that I was encountering as the sole parent of my
daughter. As my child evolved into a teenager, I began to see the need for girls, even
those who appeared very confident, to find effective ways to deal with challenges they
faced in social situations. I felt a sense of uneasiness with offering advice or resources
because as I reflected back to my teenage years, I knew that I was very lacking in selfefficacy and self-esteem. I feel that I could have made better decisions if I had a
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stronger sense of myself and belief in my abilities. The question I began to ask myself
was how can I foster essential skills within my daughter and other girls when I had truly
just developed a strong sense of self-efficacy within the last few years as an adult? In
response to my question I made it my mission to find ways to promote self-efficacy for
social situations in girls through education.
My name is Alisa Fox. I am a senior at Northern Michigan University and am
graduating in May with a bachelor’s degree in Community Health Education. I enjoy
doing things outside like hiking, horseback riding, and swimming. I love being around
kids and working with them. My future plans include planning health programs for kids in
the community in which I live. I, also, am passionate about doing mission work and
helping the people in the areas I go to. Our mission interests me because this is
something I personally have struggled with. It is important that girls know they can reach
their goals and have positive outcomes in social situations.
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1. What is our mission?
Our mission is to promote girls’ self-efficacy for social situations through
education.
2. What are the variables in our mission?
The variables are: Dependent variable = self-efficacy for social situations
Target population = girls
Independent variable = education
3. What is an agency in which we could realize this mission?
An agency we could realize our mission is the YWCA. The mission of the
YWCA is dedicated to eliminating racism, empowering women and promoting
peace, justice, freedom and dignity for all.
Link:
http://www.ywca.org/site/c.cuIRJ7NTKrLaG/b.7515887/k.9633/Mission__Vision.
htm
4. What job/position could we have in this agency that would allow us to
engage our personal mission in the agency?
A position we could possess within the YWCA that would allow us to engage
our personal mission is a Wellness Services Manager. The job description for
this position is as follows: “Manage, plan, coordinate, implement, monitor and
evaluate wellness promotion programs designed to encourage healthy lifestyles
and reduce chronic disease.”
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Link to job description: http://www.ebookbrowse.com/ywca-wellness-managerdescription-0411-doc-d125404184
4b. What is our job position for this particular project however?
Our specific job for the class is to develop a program plan and evaluation plan
designed to accomplish our mission. As such, we shall:
Assess the need to promote self-efficacy for social situations in girls.
Identify measurable objectives reflecting the promotion of self-efficacy for social
situations in girls.
Plan an evidence-based education program that has shown to promote selfefficacy for social situations in girls.
Implement the evidence-based program.
Evaluate to see if the program effectively promoted self-efficacy for social
situations in girls.
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Section 2: Review of the Related Literature
Our mission is to promote girls’ self-efficacy for social situations through
education.
To analyze the literature for relevant information, our four questions with our
mission dependent variable and target population are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social situations
in girls?
Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social situations?
Does the article show us a model program or education program that has been
shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations?
5. Which pieces shall we use to analyze the literature to develop our program
plan and evaluation plan designed to meet our mission?
We shall use the following pieces:
Article 1:
Bacchini, D., & Magliulo, F. (2003, 10 01). Self-image and perceived self-efficacy
during adolescence. Retrieved from
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1024969914672
The aim of the research is to assess self-image and perceived self-efficacy during
different phases of adolescence. We conducted a survey of 675 adolescents selected
according to gender (289 males and 386 females), age (early, middle, and late
adolescence), residential zone (low to middle and middle to high social background),
and the kind of school (Italian arts/science/languages/classics-based high school or
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“liceo” vs. vocational school or “istituto tecnico”). The adolescents completed the Offer
Self Image Questionnaire (OSIQ) to evaluate dimensions of self and a series of
perceived self-efficacy scales. Adolescents generally describe themselves in positive
terms. Multivariate analysis revealed that boys and students who attend vocational
schools have a better self-image than girls and students at licei. Age and residential
zone had only moderate effects. Girls proved to have better academic and regulatory
self-efficacy but a lesser degree of emotional self-efficacy. We suggest that girls
experience higher levels of stress during adolescence, probably as a result of
educational factors, while the difficulties of liceo students may be the result of the
significant distance between the actual self and the ideal self. The use of two constructs
(self-image and self-efficacy) confirmed the existence of multifaceted aspects contained
within the concept of self.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, the article states that we put forward the following hypothesis: that a gradual
consolidation of self-image takes place during development which improves
especially in relation to the dimensions of control and social competence; that
girls present a more problematic self-image with respect to the boys; and that the
constructs of self-image and self-efficacy do not overlap and therefore make it
possible to focus on different aspects of development.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
Yes, regulatory self- efficacy (the capacity to resist environmental pressures
while participating in deviant actions) and emotional self-efficacy (the capacity to
cope with and regulate their own emotional reactions) seem to play a crucial role
in putting the adolescent to the test.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
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Yes, in order to evaluate self-efficacy during adolescence five self-efficacy scales
were administered: self-regulatory, social, positive, and negative emotional selfefficacy.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
No, the article did not show us a model program or education program.
Article 2:
Bandura, A., Pastorelli, C., Barbaranelli, C., & Caprara, G. V. (1999). Self-efficacy
pathways to childhood depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
76(2), 258-269. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/209813215?accountid=2745
This prospective research analyzed how different facets of perceived self-efficacy
operate in concert within a network of sociocognitive influences in childhood depression.
Perceived social and academic inefficacy contributed to concurrent and subsequent
depression both directly and through their impact on academic achievement,
prosocialness, and problem behaviors.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, perceived social and academic inefficacy contributed to concurrent and
subsequent depression both directly and through their impact on academic
achievement, prosocialness, and problem behaviors.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
Yes, perceived self-efficacy refers to beliefs in one’s capabilities to produce given
attainments and a secure sense of social efficacy fosters positive social
relationships whereas perceived social inefficacy tends to breed social alienating
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behaviors. Children’s social efficacy included perceived capabilities to develop
and maintain social relationships, work collegially with other, and manage
socially conflictful situations.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
Yes, a principal-components factor analysis with varimax orthogonal rotation
revealed a three-factor structure…..Perceived Social Self-Efficacy constituted the
second factor. The items loading on this factor included perceived capability for
peer relationships, for self-assertiveness, and for leisure-time social activities.
The third factor, Perceived Self-Regulatory Efficacy, was represented by items
measuring perceived capability to resist peer pressure to engage in high-risk
activities. The findings of previous research corroborate the predictiveness of the
last two aspects of perceived efficacy as well. The researchers measure
children's beliefs in their capabilities to form and maintain social relationships,
work cooperatively with others, and manage different types of interpersonal
conflicts. The researchers assessed perceived self-efficacy to meet others’
expectations by examining children's beliefs in their capabilities to fulfill what their
parents, teachers, and peers expect of them and to live up to what they expect of
themselves.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
No, the article does not show us a model program or education program that has
been shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations.
Article 3:
Beets, M.W., Pitetti, K. H., & Forlaw, L. (2007). The role of self-efficacy and referent
specific social support in promoting rural adolescent girls' physical activity.
American Journal of Health Behavior, 31(3), 227-237. Retrieved from
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/
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Objective: To examine the role of social support (SS) and self-efficacy (SE) for physical
activity (PA) in rural high school girls (N = 259, 15.5+1.2yrs). Methods: Using structural
equation modeling, the relationships among PA, SS for PA from mother, father, and
peers, and SE for overcoming barriers, seeking support, and resisting competing
activities were tested. Results: The effect of peer SS on PA was partially mediated
through overcoming barriers. The effect of support seeking on PA was fully mediated
through peer SS to overcoming barriers. Neither parent influenced PA. Conclusions:
Peer SS and specific dimensions of SE should be considered in intervention studies.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, the article says that the objective was to examine the role of social support
(SS) and self-efficacy (SE) for physical activity (PA) in rural high school girls (N =
259, 15.5+1.2yrs).
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the abstract does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations;
but, on page one of the article there is a definition.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
No, the article does not tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
Yes, the article says that they used structural equation modeling, the
relationships among PA, SS for PA from mother, father, and peers, and SE for
overcoming barriers, seeking support, and resisting competing activities.
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Article 4:
Chalmers, J. B., & Townsend, M. A. R. (1990). The effects of training in social
perspective taking on socially maladjusted girls. (Vol. 61, No. 1, pp. 178-190).
Wiley on behalf of the Society for Research in Child Development. Retrieved
from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1131057
A paucity of research exists concerning training programs for the development of
interpersonal functioning in socially maladjusted or delinquent adolescent females.
Females in a residential institution participated in a role-play program designed to
enhance social perspective-taking ability. In 15 sessions girls were coached in specific
social skills and acted multiple role perspectives in typical problem situations.
Compared to girls in a fitness training program, girls in the role-play training program
showed enhanced performance on a measure of social perspective taking. Generalized
effects were also found for performance on tests of interpersonal problem analysis,
empathy, and the acceptance of individual differences. Additionally, observational data
indicated that role-play training resulted in increased prosocial behaviors. Role-play
training had no effect on a measure of referential communication.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, a paucity of research exists concerning training programs for the
development of interpersonal functioning in socially maladjusted or delinquent
adolescent females.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
Yes, the article discussed the performance on tests of interpersonal problem
analysis, empathy, and the acceptance of individual differences.
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d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
Yes, it provided us with the role-play training program.
Article 5:
Connolly, J. (1989). Social self-efficacy in adolescence: Relations with selfconcept, social adjustment, and mental health. Canadian Journal of
Behavioural Science, 21(3), 258-269. doi: 10.1037/h0079809
Evaluations of self-efficacy in carrying out social tasks that underlie successful personal
relations have been highlighted as an important component of social competence in
childhood and adolescence. An examination of social self-efficacy in two samples of
high school students and a sample of emotionally disturbed adolescents are reported.
The Adolescent Social Self-Efficacy Scale, a 25-item scale which elicits self-ratings
of behavioral effectiveness in problematic peer contexts, was developed. Scale
homogeneity and test-retest reliability were evident in the samples tested. Validity of the
social self-efficacy construct was demonstrated by correlations with indices of social
self-concept and ratings of social adjustment. Clinical utility of the scale was also
evident. Emotionally disturbed adolescents rated themselves more poorly than did their
well-functioning peers. These findings support the conceptualization of social selfefficacy as a component of social competence and as a contributor to mental health.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, the article states that evaluations of self-efficacy in carrying out social
tasks that underlie successful personal relations have been highlighted as an
important component of social competence in childhood and adolescence.
Emotionally disturbed adolescents rated themselves more poorly than did their
well-functioning peers.
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b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
Yes, the article says social self-efficacy was examined using the Adolescent
Social Self-Efficacy Scale, a 25-item scale which elicits self-ratings of
behavioral effectiveness in problematic peer contexts.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
No, the article does not show us a model program or education program.
Article 6:
Conversation starters for teenage girls(scenarios). (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://teachingthem.com/about/
These scenarios are intended to provide conversation starters for teen girls and a
skilled and caring mentor. They can also be used in group settings, but an adult guide
should still be present to provide perspective and wisdom. The following scripts could
be used: There are many challenging situations facing teenage girls today. If you
haven’t thought about how you will prepare for them or respond to them, they could
surprise you, and you might find yourself under pressure to make the wrong decision.
Today, we are going to ask you to think about some of these situations and give your
opinion about how you should prepare for or respond to them.”
1. Does the article indicate a need to promote self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
The article does seem to indicate a need to change the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls evidenced by the scripts suggested. There are many
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challenging situations facing teenage girls today. If you haven’t thought about
how you will prepare for them or respond to them, they could surprise you, and
you might find yourself under pressure to make the wrong decision.
2. Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
3. Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
No, the article does not tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations.
4. Does the article show us a model program or education program that has
been shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not show us a model program or education program.
Article 7:
"ERIC - Education Resources Information Center." ERIC – World’s largest digital
library of education literature. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2013. >.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/recordDetails.jsp?ERICExtSearch
SearchValue_0=ED412456&searchtype=keyword&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=
no&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&accno=ED412456&_nfls=false&source=ae
Adolescence is a critical time for the development of self-identity; a time which often
changes enthusiastic and assertive 8- and 9-year-old girls into 11- and 12-year-old girls
with poor self-images and little faith in their abilities. To better understand this process,
this study investigated the relationship between hope and general self-efficacy (GSE) as
a function of age and gender in adolescents. The sample consisted of a cross-sectional
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group of 464 girls and boys, grades 6 through 12, from both Catholic schools and public
schools in two large Midwestern communities. Instruments consisted of a demographic
information form, the Children's Hope Scale, and the Self-Efficacy Scale. In general, the
results support the hypothesis that hope and GSE are significantly related and that hope
declines in adolescence for girls. Due to limitations in this study, further investigation
into the variables of hope and GSE may be more helpful in revealing which factors help
individuals persevere in the adolescent years.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, the abstract states that the hypothesis that hope and GSE are significantly
related and that hope declines in adolescence for girls.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the abstract does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
It may, the abstract references the Children's Hope Scale, and the Self-Efficacy
Scale.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
No, the article does not show us a model program or education program that has
been shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations.
Article 8:
Haraldsson, K., Lindgren, E., Mattsson, B., Fridlund, B., & Marklund, B. (2010).
Adolescent girls' experiences of underlying social processes triggering
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stress in their everyday life: a grounded theory study. (Vol. 27, pp. e61-e70).
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Retrieved from
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/smi.1336/abstract
The aim of this study was to generate a theoretical model of underlying social
processes that trigger stress in adolescent girls' everyday life. In-depth interviews
regarding the experiences of stress at home, school and during leisure time were
conducted with 14 17-year-old schoolgirls. Data were analyzed by means of the
grounded theory method. Stress was triggered in the interaction between responsibility
and the way in which the girls were encountered. Triggered emotional reactions took the
form of four dimensions of stress included ambivalence, frustration, despair and
downheartedness. These reactions were dependent on whether the girls’ voluntary
assumed responsibility for various situations or whether they were forced, or felt they
were being forced, to assume responsibility in interaction with an encounter
characterized by closeness or distance. These forms of stress reactions could appear in
one dimension and subsequently shift to another. From the public health perspective,
the generated stress model can be used in the planning and implementation of future
actions to prevent stress and promote well-being related to stress in adolescent girls.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, the article tells us that underlying social processes trigger stress in
adolescent girls’ everyday life.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
Yes, the article provided us the grounded theory method to analyze the data.
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d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
Yes, the article provided us with a theoretical model of underlying social
processes that trigger stress in adolescent girls' everyday life.
Article 9:
Jantzer, A. M., Stalides, D. J., & Rottinghaus, P. J. (2009). An exploration of social
cognitive mechanisms, gender, and vocational identity among eighth graders.
Journal of Career Development, 36(2), 114-138. doi:
10.1177/0894845309345841
The authors conducted a multiple group path analysis examining gender differences
in relations among career decision-making self-efficacy (CDMSE), career decisionmaking outcome expectations (CDMOE), and career decision-making intentionsgoals (CDMIG), as well as linkages between these three sociocognitive variables and
vocational identity status in a sample of 820 eighth graders. Overall, gender differences
in mean levels of the sociocognitive variables were found, with girls scoring significantly
higher on each variable. Results revealed model parameters varied across the groups,
with stronger paths for boys than girls. Outcome expectations partially mediated the
relation between CDMSE and CDMIG. Overall, CDMSE and CDMOE accounted for
30% and 45% of the variance in CDMIG for girls and boys, respectively. Moreover,
linear combinations of sociocognitive variables explained differences among identity
status groups. Participants with high CDMSE and CDMOE scores were more likely
to have made a tentative career choice, whereas those with lower scores had not yet
committed. Suggestions are provided for counseling younger adolescents as they begin
to develop vocational identities.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
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Yes, the article says that girls scored significantly high on each variable: CDMSE,
CDMOE, and CDMIG. Overall, CDMSE and CDMOE accounted for 30% of the
variance in CDMIG for girls.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the abstract does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
However, it does on the fourth page of the article.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
No, it does not tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social situations.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
Yes, the article says that suggestions are provided for counseling younger
adolescents as they begin to develop vocational identities.
Article 10:
La Greca, A., & Lopez, N. (1998). Social anxiety among adolescents: Linkages
with peer relations and friendships. (Vol. 26, pp. 83-94). Kluwer Academic
Publishers-Plenum Publishers. Retrieved from
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1022684520514
This study examined the utility of modifying the Social Anxiety Scale for Children—
Revised (SASC-R) for use with adolescents, and examined associations between
adolescents' social anxiety (SA) and their peer relations, friendships, and social
functioning. Boys (n = 101) and girls (n = 149) in the 10th through 12th grades
completed the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A) and measures of social
support, perceived competence, and number and quality of their best friendships. Factor
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analysis of the SAS-A confirmed a three-factor structure: Fear of Negative Evaluation,
Social Avoidance and Distress in General, and Social Avoidance Specific to New
Situations or Unfamiliar Peers. Girls reported more SA than boys, and SA was more
strongly linked to girls' social functioning than boys'. Specifically, adolescents with
higher levels of SA reported poorer social functioning (less support from classmates,
less social acceptance), and girls with higher levels of SA reported fewer friendships,
and less intimacy, companionship, and support in their close friendships. These findings
extend work on the SASC-R to adolescents, and suggest the importance of SA for
understanding the social functioning and close friendships of adolescents, especially
girls.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, the article states that girls reported more Social Anxiety (SA) than boys, and
SA was more strongly linked to girls' social functioning than boys'. Specifically,
adolescents with higher levels of SA reported poorer social functioning (less
support from classmates, less social acceptance), and girls with higher levels of
SA reported fewer friendships, and less intimacy, companionship, and support in
their close friendships.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
Yes, the article provides us with the Social Anxiety Scale for Children—Revised
(SASC-R) for use with adolescents, and examined associations between
adolescents' social anxiety (SA) and their peer relations, friendships, and social
functioning. Boys (n = 101) and girls (n = 149) in the 10th through 12th grades
completed the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A) and measures of
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social support, perceived competence, and number and quality of their best
friendships. Factor analysis of the SAS-A confirmed a three-factor structure: Fear
of Negative Evaluation, Social Avoidance and Distress in General, and Social
Avoidance Specific to New Situations or Unfamiliar Peers.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
No, the article does not show us a model program or education program that has
been shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations.
Article 11:
Roa, J., Irvine, A., & Cervantez, K. (2007). Girls circle national research project
evaluation results year one.
Girls Circle is a model of structured support groups promoting healthy relationships and
lifestyles for adolescent girls. Ceres Policy Research conducted an evaluation of 15
Girls Circle programs across the country in juvenile justice, school, and community
settings, with completed surveys from 278 girls. Girls Circle facilitators administered
pre- and post-participation surveys measuring the expected short- and long-term
outcomes for girls completing 8-12 week programs. Statistical analysis of the data,
completed by Ceres, found that participants reported gains in six of twelve short-term
skills. Participants also reported statistically significant improvements in: (1) a decrease
in self-harming behavior, (2) a decrease in alcohol use, (3) an increase in attachment to
school, and (4) an increase in self-efficacy. Looking across different sub-populations of
respondents, most girls benefited equally from participating in Girls Circle.
a)
Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Whereas the abstract does not indicate the need, the article itself does state that
Girls Circle promotes resiliency and healthy relationships in pre-teen and
adolescent girls and young women. Our purpose is to encourage the
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development of strength, courage, confidence, honesty, and communication
skills for all girls.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
Yes, the Girls Circle facilitators administered pre- and post-participation surveys
measuring the expected short- and long-term outcomes for girls completing 8-12
week programs.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program that has
been shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations?
Yes, the girls completed 8-12 week programs. Statistical analysis of the data,
completed by Ceres, found that participants reported gains in six of twelve shortterm skills. Participants also reported statistically significant improvements in: (1)
a decrease in self-harming behavior, (2) a decrease in alcohol use, (3) an
increase in attachment to school, and (4) an increase in self-efficacy. Looking
across different sub-populations of respondents, most girls benefited equally
from participating in Girls Circle.
Article 12:
Rudy, B., Davis, T., Matthews, R. (2012) Socialization of Emotions. In Lewis, M. and
Havvialnd "ScienceDirect.com - Behavior Therapy - The Relationship Among SelfEfficacy, Negative Self-Referent Cognitions, and Social Anxiety in Children: A
Multiple Mediator Model." N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2013.
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005789411001432>.
Evidence suggests that general self-efficacy, an individual's beliefs about his global
abilities, and social self-efficacy, an individual's beliefs in his ability to navigate social
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situations, are strongly connected to levels of social anxiety. Negative self-statements,
also known as negative self-referent cognitions, have also been linked with levels of
social anxiety. Although self-efficacy and negative self-statements have been shown to
be important variables in the phenomenology and maintenance of social anxiety in
children, they have yet to be examined in conjunction with one another. The purpose of
this study was to examine the relationship between negative self-referent cognitions and
self-efficacy and to examine both general self-efficacy and social self-efficacy as
mediator variables in the relationship between negative self-statements and social
anxiety. Results were based on a sample of 126 children ages 11 to 14 years. A
significant association between negative self-statements and both general self-efficacy
and social self-efficacy was established. Results also indicated that general self-efficacy
fully mediated the relationship between negative self-statements and social anxiety;
however, contrary to hypotheses, social self-efficacy did not mediate the relationship
between negative self-statements and social anxiety. Implications and future
recommendations are discussed.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
It could; Researchers have found evidence for the link between social selfefficacy and social anxiety and prevalence rates for social phobia are reported to
range from 3% to 13%, (DSM-IV-TR), with the most recent estimates indicating a
lifetime prevalence rate of 12.1%. (This is in all ages but could apply to girls.)
Although, the article states that girls reporting higher levels of general selfefficacy than boys it is worth pursuing further research into the findings of this
article. *The article ties social anxiety and social phobia together.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
Yes, social self –efficacy is the person’s belief about his capability to accurately
perform in a social situation. It also provided this definition social self-efficacy, an
individual's beliefs in his ability to navigate social situations.
Page 23 of 65
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
Yes, the Demographic Questionnaire, the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory
for Children, Self-Efficacy for Children and the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for
Social Skills for Children and Negative Affectivity Self-Statement Questionnaire.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
Yes, participants were then recruited from a public middle school in Louisiana
and once the consent/assent was collected and any questions concerning the
study were addressed, the participant measures were administered to students in
assembly format in a single time period during school hours. There is a lot more
information on the specifics in the article.
Article 13:
Steese, S., Dollette, M., Phillips, W., Hossfeld, E., & al, e. (2006). Understanding
girls' circle as an intervention on perceived social support, body image, selfefficacy, locus of control, and self-esteem. Adolescence, 41(161), 55-74.
Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/195937968?accountid=2745
The Girls' Circle is a support group for adolescent girls developed by Beth Hossfeld and
Giovanna Taormina as a unique program that addresses the needs of girls by focusing
on increasing connections, building empathic skills, and developing resiliency. The
present study evaluates the effectiveness of the Girls' Circle intervention on improving
social support, body image, locus of control, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. Sixty-three
girls from 9 support groups (comprising 5 to 15 girls each) across the United States
completed the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, the Body Parts
Satisfaction Scale, the Nowicki-Strickland Personal Reaction Survey, Schwarzer's
General Self Efficacy Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale both before and
Page 24 of 65
after the 10-week Girls' Circle program. Results revealed a significant increase in social
support, body image, and self-efficacy after completion of the program.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, the article indicates a need to change the self-efficacy for social situations in
girls. It addresses the needs of girls by focusing on increasing connections,
building empathic skills, and developing resiliency.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
Yes, the article shows us how to measure the self-efficacy for social situations. It
provides us with Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, the Body
Parts Satisfaction Scale, the Nowicki-Strickland Personal Reaction Survey,
Schwarzer's General Self Efficacy Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
Yes, the article provides us with a model program – the Girls’ Circle Program.
Article 14:
Surviving the teens/suicide prevention. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/service/s/surviving-teens/stressors/peersocial/
There are a number of peer and social stressors that can contribute to depression and
suicidal behaviors. The Division of Psychiatry at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical
Center provides examples of these stressors to help friends and family recognize
Page 25 of 65
potential warning signs. Research shows that friends are the first chosen sources of
support for teenagers. Therefore, it is important that teenagers know how to recognize
signs of depression and suicidal behaviors in their friends and talk to them in a helpful
way, as well as know where to go for help. Stressful life events often precede a suicide.
Often the life event occurs at a time when the person is struggling, turning this life event
into “the straw that breaks the camel’s back.” Examples of social stressors include:
rejection, gossip/cliques, teasing/bullying, peer pressure, humiliation, school stressors,
etc.
1.
Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, there are a number of peer and social stressors that can contribute to
depression and suicidal behaviors.
2.
Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
3.
Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
No, the article does not tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations.
4.
Does the article show us a model program or education program that has
been shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not show us a model program or education program that
has been shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations.
Page 26 of 65
Article 15:
Taylor, J. V., & Trice-Black, S. (2007). Girls in real life situations: group
counseling activities for enhancing social and emotional development.
Champaign, Illinois: Research Press.
In today’s society, girls are often forced to grow up too quickly. Unfortunately, girls often
begin struggling with issues relating to self-esteem, friendship, decision making, and
isolation beginning in elementary school. Girls in Real-Life Situations (G.I.R.L.S.) is a
proactive group counseling curriculum designed to give girls an opportunity to feel
empowered, gain self-awareness, develop positive coping mechanisms, improve daily
problem-solving skills, feel connected with other girls, and make healthy decisions as
they grow. This book includes activities appropriate for girls.
In G.I.R.L.S., group members share feelings, struggles, and similarities and serve as a
sounding board for one another while discussing and participating in a variety of
experiences dealing with issues common to all girls. The lesson plans and activities in
this book are preventive and proactive. They are designed to help promote self-esteem,
friendship skills, social skills, and problem-solving skills. G.I.R.L.S. is intended primarily
for use by school counselors, psychologists, social workers, and teachers but is also
valuable to youth group leaders, Girl Scout leaders, health and fitness club
coordinators, camp counselors, and anyone else interested in enhancing the social and
emotional development of girls.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, in today’s society, girls are often forced to grow up too quickly.
Unfortunately, girls often begin struggling with issues relating to self-esteem,
friendship, decision making, and isolation beginning in elementary school.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
Page 27 of 65
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
No, the article does not tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program that has
been shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations?
Yes, the article does provide us a model or education program that has been
shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations. Girls in Real-Life Situations
(G.I.R.L.S.) is a proactive group counseling curriculum designed to give girls an
opportunity to feel empowered, gain self-awareness, develop positive coping
mechanisms, improve daily problem-solving skills, feel connected with other girls,
and make healthy decisions as they grow. This book includes activities
appropriate for girls.
In G.I.R.L.S., group members share feelings, struggles, and similarities and
serve as a sounding board for one another while discussing and participating in a
variety of experiences dealing with issues common to all girls. The lesson plans
and activities in this book are preventive and proactive. They are designed to
help promote self-esteem, friendship skills, social skills, and problem-solving
skills.
ARTICLE 16:
TRÆEN, B. & KVALEM, I. L. (2006). Investigating the relationship between past
contraceptive behavior, self-efficacy, and anticipated shame and guilt in
sexual contexts among Norwegian adolescents. Journal of Community &
Applied Social Psychology, 17, 19–34. doi: 10.1002/casp.869
What are the relationships between self-efficacy when communicating to the partner
about use of contraception, stopping undesired intercourse, and perceived selfPage 28 of 65
conscious emotions in sexual contexts? How does past contraceptive behavior
influence perceived self-efficacy? These research questions were studied among
399 10th grade students with coital experience in the county Nordland in Norway.
Two dimensions of perceived emotional responses were identified in a hypothetical
situation related to communicating to the partner about use of contraception, namely
Shame and Emotional intimacy. Two dimensions were also identified with regard
to anticipated emotional responses in a hypothetical situation related to stopping
undesired intercourse: Guilt and responsibility and Emotional intimacy. Most of the
boys and girls reported that they would react with positive emotions in both hypothetical
situations. Path models were constructed with the affective dimensions and self-esteem
as mediating variables between past contraceptive behavior and contextual selfefficacy. Past behavior influenced communication self-efficacy indirectly via Shame,
and Shame had a direct effect upon self-efficacy. Guilt and responsibility had a direct
effect upon stop-self-efficacy.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, the article says that past behavior influenced communication self-efficacy
indirectly via shame, and shame had a direct effect upon self-efficacy.
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the abstract does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
However, it does on the second page of the article.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
No, the article does not tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program?
Page 29 of 65
Yes, the article says that path models were constructed with the affective
dimensions and self-esteem as mediating variables between past contraceptive
behavior and contextual self-efficacy.
Article 17:
What is westwood action troop. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://westwoodactiontroupe.webs.com/
The Westwood High School ACTion troop is a substance abuse and violence
prevention team, made up of committed volunteer students from Westwood High
School in Ishpeming, Michigan. The ACTion troupe uses dramatic scenes and
multimedia presentations to promote healthy lifestyle choices and non-violent conflict
solutions to groups of all ages.
1. Does the article indicate a need to promote self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
No, the article does not indicate a need to promote self-efficacy for social
situations in girls.
2. Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
3. Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
No, the article does not tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations.
4. Does the article show us a model program or education program that has
been shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations?
Page 30 of 65
No, the article does not show us a model program or education program that has
been shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations.
Article 18:
Ywca. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.ywca.org/site/c.cuIRJ7NTKrLaG/b.7515807/k.2FF8/YWCA__Emp
owering_Women_Eliminating_Racism.htm
The YWCA is an organization that believes women and girls should have the
capabilities to handle any situation they encounter. The mission of the YWCA is
dedicated to eliminating racism, empowering women and promoting peace, justice,
freedom and dignity for all. Their agency has a variety of programs geared towards
women to help achieve these goals. First, there is the financial literacy program which
helps women gain independence by training them on budget basics to retirement
planning. Another program is the military and veterans program which offers support to
military families, including emergency housing and career training. Also, they offer
support to military women who are victims of sexual assault. The YWCA offers support
and programs for women and girls who have been victims of any form of violence.
Shelters and support groups are some of the things that are offered for women and girls
who have experienced violence. Job training and empowerment programs are offered to
assist (women) in achieving self-sufficiency. There are early childcare programs to
provide early education for children and so parents are able to hold a job without having
to worry about their child(ren). Young women are served through leadership
development programs, and are eligible for scholarships through the YWCA.
a) Does the article indicate a need to promote the self-efficacy for social
situations in girls?
Yes, the article says that the YWCA believes that women and girls should have
the capabilities to encounter any situation they encounter.
Page 31 of 65
b) Does the article theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations?
No, the article does not theoretically define self-efficacy for social situations.
c) Does the article tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations?
No, the article does not tell us how to measure the self-efficacy for social
situations.
d) Does the article show us a model program or education program that has
been shown to promote self-efficacy for social situations?
Yes, the article gives us a variety of programs offered by the YWCA, including
the empowerment programs that are offered to assist in achieving self-sufficiency
and the leadership development programs.
Section 3: Synthesis of the Literature in Section 2 and Selection for
Program Plan - Janelle Brkic, Alisa Fox and Jennifer Westman
Assessing the General Need to promote self-efficacy for social
situations in girls.
6. According to our literature review what is the general NEED to
promote self-efficacy for social situations in girls?
According to the literature we reviewed, there is a need to promote girls’ self-efficacy
for social situations. In today’s society, girls are often forced to grow up too quickly.
Unfortunately, girls often begin struggling with issues relating to self-esteem, friendship,
decision making, and isolation beginning in elementary school (Taylor and Trice-Black,
2007). There was also research that included the hypothesis that hope and General
Self-Efficacy (GSE) are significantly related and that hope declines in adolescence for
girls (ERIC, 2013). Perceived self-efficacy refers to beliefs in one’s capabilities to
Page 32 of 65
produce given attainments. A sense of personal efficacy is the foundation of human
agency. Unless people believe they can produce desired effects by their actions, they
have little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties. Adolescents have to
manage major biological, educational, and social role transitions concurrently. The
success with which the risks and challenges of adolescence are managed depends, in
no small measure, on the strength of the adolescents’ perceived self-efficacy. Children
who enter adolescence beset by a disabling sense of inefficacy transport their
vulnerability to stress and dysfunction to the new environmental demands and to the
pervasive biopsychosocial changes they find themselves undergoing in this transitional
phase of their lives. A secure sense of social efficacy fosters positive social
relationships, whereas perceived social inefficacy tends to breed social alienating
behaviors. Perceived social and academic inefficacy contributed to concurrent and
subsequent depression both directly and through their impact on academic
achievement, prosocialness, and problem behaviors One pathway to depression is
through a low sense of social efficacy to develop social relationships that bring
satisfaction to people’s lives and enable them to manage chronic stressors.
Perceived social inefficacy contributed more heavily to depression in girls than in boys
in the longer term. ..., a sense of social inefficacy was accompanied by depression
concurrently in girls but not in boys. ... girls’ concurrent depression was more heavily
linked to depression two years later. A low sense of efficacy to manage negative
emotions is highly depressing for females but not for males (Bandura, et al, 1999).
According to our research, underlying social processes trigger stress in adolescent girls’
everyday life (Haraldsson, et al, 2010). Our research also found that past behavior
influenced communication self-efficacy indirectly via shame, and shame had a direct
effect upon self-efficacy (Traeen & Kvalem, 2006).
The gradual consolidation of self-image takes place during development which
improves especially in relation to the dimensions of control and social competence; that
girls present a more problematic self-image with respect to the boys; and that the
constructs of self-image and self-efficacy do not overlap and therefore make it possible
to focus on different aspects of development (Bacchini & Magliulo, 2003). Another
article review indicated a need to change the self-efficacy for social situations in girls. It
Page 33 of 65
addressed the needs of girls by focusing on increasing connections, building empathic
skills, and developing resiliency (Steese, et al, 2006). The evaluations of self-efficacy in
carrying out social tasks that underlie successful personal relations have been
highlighted as an important component of social competence in childhood and
adolescence. Emotionally disturbed adolescents rated themselves more poorly than did
their well-functioning peers (Connolly, 1989). Social self-efficacy, however, is focused
on self-expectations for personal skill in performing the specific behaviors that underlie
personal relationships. While social self-efficacy likely contributes to self-evaluations of
success in social relations, it is viewed as a distinct construct (Connolly, 1989). Girls
reported more Social Anxiety (SA) than boys, and SA was more strongly linked to girls'
social functioning than boys'. Specifically, adolescents with higher levels of SA reported
poorer social functioning (less support from classmates, less social acceptance), and
girls with higher levels of SA reported fewer friendships, and less intimacy,
companionship, and support in their close friendships (LaGreca & Lopez, 1998).
Researchers have found evidence for the link between social self-efficacy and social
anxiety and prevalence rates for social phobia are reported to range from 3% to 13%,
(DSM-IV-TR), with the most recent estimates indicating a lifetime prevalence rate of
12.1% (Rudy, et al 2012). Whereas the abstract of the Girls Circle program does not
indicate the need, the article itself does state that Girls Circle promotes resiliency and
healthy relationships in pre-teen and adolescent girls and young women. Their purpose
is to encourage the development of strength, courage, confidence, honesty, and
communication skills for all girls.
Another article reviewed stated that the objective was to examine the role of social
support (SS) and self-efficacy (SE) for physical activity (PA) in rural high school girls (N
=259, 15.5+1.2yrs). There is a low level of habitual physical activity among adolescent
girls. Self-efficacy has been found to be related to intentions to be physically active.
Self-efficacy is proposed to be a multidimensional construct, consisting of
subdimensions (e.g., barriers, support seeking, competing activities, and environmental
change) related to specific efficacious perceptions regarding hindrances to being
physically active. Both parent- and peer-provided social support (e.g., encouragement,
transportation) influence the immediate and long-term physical activity behaviors of girls
Page 34 of 65
(Beets, Pitetti & Forlaw, 2007). According to the article, The Effects of Training in Social
Perspective Taking on Socially Maladjusted Girls, a paucity of research exists
concerning training programs for the development of interpersonal functioning in socially
maladjusted or delinquent adolescent females (Chalmers & Townsend, 1990). It also
has been shown that girls scored significantly high on each variable: Career DecisionMaking Self-Efficacy (CDMSE), Career Decision-Making Outcome Expectations
(CDMOE), and Career Decision-Making Intentions-Goals (CDMIG). Overall, CDMSE
and CDMOE accounted for 30% of the variance in CDMIG for girls (Jantzer, et al,
2009).
Page 35 of 65
6a. How can we symbolically depict the relationship between the
need to promote self-efficacy for social situations, the YWCA’s
mission and our mission?
Page 36 of 65
7. According to the literature review how is self-efficacy for social
situations theoretically defined and what are the component parts, if
any?
Social self –efficacy is the person’s belief about his capability to accurately perform
in a social situation (Rudy et al, 2012). According to Bandura, children’s social efficacy
included perceived capabilities to develop and maintain social relationships, work
collegially with others, and manage socially conflictful situations (Bandura, et al, 1999).
Although most of the articles reviewed did not thoroughly define self-efficacy for social
situations, there were definitions of self-efficacy. One article defined regulatory selfefficacy (the capacity to resist environmental pressures while participating in deviant
actions) and emotional self-efficacy (the capacity to cope with and regulate their own
emotional reactions) (Bacchini, D., & Magliulo, F. ,2003).
Our literature review also provided us with a definition of perceived self-efficacy.
Perceived self-efficacy refers to beliefs in one’s capabilities to produce given
attainments and a secure sense of social efficacy fosters positive social relationships
whereas perceived social inefficacy tends to breed social alienating behaviors (Bandura
et al. , 1999).
Page 37 of 65
7a. Portray or develop a model of self-efficacy for social situations.
Page 38 of 65
For the purpose of this project we will be focusing on the emotional self-efficacy portion of the
model.
Emotional self-efficacy (Bacchini &
Magliulo, 2003)
Capacity to cope and regulate own
emotional reactions. (Bacchini & Magliulo,
2003)
Peer pressure (Cincinnati
Children’s, 2013)
Rejection
(Cincinnati Children’s,
2013)
Gossip/clique (Cincinnati
Children’s, 2013)
Teased/bullied by peers
(Cincinnati Children’s, 2013)
Page 39 of 65
8. According to the literature review, how is self-efficacy for social
situations measured in the field?
According to the literature reviewed, there were different ways to measure selfefficacy. In one article, to evaluate self-efficacy during adolescence five self-efficacy
scales were administered: self-regulatory, social, positive, and negative emotional selfefficacy (Bacchini & Magliulo, 2003). Another way measurement was provided was a
principal-components factor analysis with varimax orthogonal rotation revealed a threefactor structure…..Perceived Social Self-Efficacy constituted the second factor. The
items loading on this factor included perceived capability for peer relationships, for selfassertiveness, and for leisure-time social activities. The third factor, Perceived SelfRegulatory Efficacy, was represented by items measuring perceived capability to resist
peer pressure to engage in high-risk activities. The findings of previous research
corroborate the predictiveness of the last two aspects of perceived efficacy as well
(Bandura, et al, 1999).
Another measurement tool was the Social Anxiety Scale for Children—Revised
(SASC-R) for use with adolescents, which examined associations between adolescents'
social anxiety (SA) and their peer relations, friendships, and social functioning. Boys (n
= 101) and girls (n = 149) in the 10th through 12th grades completed the Social Anxiety
Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A) and measures of social support, perceived competence,
and number and quality of their best friendships. Factor analysis of the SAS-A
confirmed a three-factor structure: Fear of Negative Evaluation, Social Avoidance and
Distress in General, and Social Avoidance Specific to New Situations or Unfamiliar
Peers (LaGreca & Lopez, 1998). Also, social self-efficacy was examined using the
Adolescent Social Self-Efficacy Scale, a 25-item scale which elicits self-ratings of
behavioral effectiveness in problematic peer contexts (Connolly, 1989). Our literature
review also provided us with the Demographic Questionnaire, the Social Phobia and
Anxiety Inventory for Children, Self-Efficacy for Children and the Self-Efficacy
Questionnaire for Social Skills for Children and Negative Affectivity Self-Statement
Questionnaire as measurement tools (Rudy, et al, 2012). Multidimensional Scale of
Perceived Social Support, the Body Parts Satisfaction Scale, the Nowicki-Strickland
Personal Reaction Survey, Schwarzer's General Self Efficacy Scale, and the Rosenberg
Page 40 of 65
Self-Esteem scale (Steese, et al, 2006) were also ways to measure different factors in
self-efficacy for social situations. Our research indicated that the Children's Hope
Scale, and the Self-Efficacy Scale were also used as measurements (ERIC, 2013).
The Girls Circle facilitators administered pre- and post-participation surveys
measuring the expected short- and long-term outcomes for girls completing 8-12 week
programs (Roa, Irvine, & Cervantez, 2007).
According to the research, the grounded theory method was also used to analyze the
data. Stress was triggered in the interaction between responsibility and the way in
which the girls were encountered. Triggered emotional reactions took the form of four
dimensions of stress included ambivalence, frustration, despair and downheartedness.
These reactions were dependent on whether the girls’ voluntary assumed responsibility
for various situations or whether they were forced, or felt they were being forced, to
assume responsibility in interaction with an encounter characterized by closeness or
distance (Haraldsson, et al, 2010).
8a. Based on the literature review, we will use the following test:
We have created an Emotional Self-Efficacy Test that we feel addresses the emotional
self-efficacy skills needed for social situations in girls today. We will administer the test
before the start of our program and after our program has ended. We will provide the
girls with a sample question prior to the start of the test. This sample question will be
used as a tool to explain and discuss the meaning of the responses with the girls.
EMOTIONAL SELF-EFFICACY TEST
Please rate how comfortable you are in the following situations:
REJECTION:
I would be able to recognize a situation in which I was being rejected.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
Page 41 of 65
I would be able to recognize a situation in which I was being rejected right now.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to regulate my emotions in a situation in which I was being rejected.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to regulate my emotions in a situation in which I was being rejected right
now.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to cope with my emotions in a situation in which I was being rejected.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to cope with my emotions in a situation in which I was being rejected
right now.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
TEASING/BULLYING:
I would be able to recognize a situation in which I was being teased or bullied by my
peers.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to recognize a situation in which I was being teased or bullied by my
peers right now.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
Page 42 of 65
I would be able to regulate my emotions in a situation in which I was being teased or
bullied by my peers.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to regulate my emotions in a situation in which I was being teased or
bullied by my peers right now,
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to cope with my emotions in a situation in which I was being teased or
bullied by my peers.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to cope with my emotions in a situation in which I was being teased or
bullied by my peers right now.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
GOSSIP & CLIQUES:
I would be able to recognize a situation in which I was being targeted by gossip or
cliques.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to recognize a situation in which I was being targeted by gossip or
cliques right now,
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
Page 43 of 65
I would be able to regulate my emotions in a situation in which I was being targeted by
gossip or cliques.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to regulate my emotions in a situation in which I was being targeted by
gossip or cliques right now.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to cope with my emotions in a situation in which I was being targeted by
gossip or cliques.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to cope with my emotions in a situation in which I was being targeted by
gossip or cliques right now.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
PEER PRESSURE:
I would be able to recognize a situation in which I was a victim of peer pressure.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to recognize a situation in which I was a victim of peer pressure right
now.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
Page 44 of 65
I would be able to regulate my emotions in a situation in which I was a victim of peer
pressure.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to regulate my emotions in a situation in which I was a victim of peer
pressure right now.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to cope with my emotions in a situation in which I was a victim of peer
pressure.
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
I would be able to cope with my emotions in a situation in which I was a victim of peer
pressure right now,
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
9. According to the literature review what evidence-based
interventions/programs have been successful in promoting self-efficacy for social
situations?
There were a few different models provided in our research. The first model we
reviewed is the Girls’ Circle Program (Steese, et al, 2006). This is a program in which
girls completed 8-12 week programs through the Girls Circle program. Statistical
analysis of the data, completed by Ceres, found that participants reported gains in six of
twelve short-term skills. Participants also reported statistically significant improvements
in: (1) a decrease in self-harming behavior, (2) a decrease in alcohol use, (3) an
increase in attachment to school, and (4) an increase in self-efficacy. Looking across
different sub-populations of respondents, most girls benefited equally from participating
in Girls Circle (Roa, Irvine, & Cervantez, 2007).
Page 45 of 65
Another interesting program we found in our literature is the Girls in Real-Life
Situations (G.I.R.L.S.), which is a proactive group counseling curriculum designed to
give girls an opportunity to feel empowered, gain self-awareness, develop positive
coping mechanisms, improve daily problem-solving skills, feel connected with other
girls, and make healthy decisions as they grow. This book includes activities appropriate
for girls. In G.I.R.L.S., group members share feelings, struggles, and similarities and
serve as a sounding board for one another while discussing and participating in a
variety of experiences dealing with issues common to all girls. The lesson plans and
activities in this book are preventive and proactive. They are designed to help promote
self-esteem, friendship skills, social skills, and problem-solving skills (Taylor and TriceBlack, 2007).
Through our literature review we were also provided with structural equation
modeling, the relationships among physical activity (PA), social support (SS) for PA
from mother, father, and peers, and self-efficacy (SE) for overcoming barriers, seeking
support, and resisting competing activities (Beets, et al, 2007). A role-play training
program (Chalmers & Townsend, 1990) was also provided in our research of different
models/programs for self-efficacy for social situations. Another method discussed was
counseling younger adolescents as they begin to develop vocational identities (Jantzer,
et al, 2009). Our research also included an article that stated path models were
constructed with the affective dimensions and self-esteem as mediating variables
between past contraceptive behavior and contextual self-efficacy (Traeen & Kvalem,
2006). There was also the theoretical model of underlying social processes provided us
with the information regarding things that trigger stress in adolescent girls' everyday life
(Haraldsson, et al, 2010).
9a. The program model(s) we plan to use to promote self-efficacy for social
situations in girls are:
For our program model, we have decided to use a combination of the Girl’s Circle
Program (Steese, et al, 2006), the G.I.R.L.S. (Girls in Real Life Situations) Activities
(Taylor and Trice-Black, 2007), activities from the Negaunee/Westwood ACTion Troupe
(“What is westwood” ) and scenarios adapted from the Teaching Them website
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(“Conversation starters”). Our combined, modified program will be called I.N.
C.H.A.R.G.E. (Inspiring & Nurturing, Confident, Heroic, Able, Resourceful Girls
Everywhere).
. Girls Circles are most often held weekly for 1 1/2 to two hours for 8-12 weeks. Each
week the facilitator leads group of girls through a format that includes each girl taking
turns talking and listening to one another respectfully about their concerns and interests.
The girls express themselves further through creative or focused activities such as role
playing, drama, journaling, poetry, dance, drawing, collage, clay, and so on. Gender
specific themes and topics are introduced which relate to the girls’ lives, such as being a
girl, trusting ourselves, friendships, body image, goals, sexuality, drugs, alcohol,
tobacco, competition and decision-making.
Our program will address the following components each week:
•
•
•
•
Week 1-2 Rejection
Week 3-4 Teasing/Bullying by Peer(s)
Week 5-6 Peer Pressure
Week 7-8 Gossip/Clique
(Examples of activities for each component to follow)
The G.I.R.L.S. activities we plan to use are:
●
Today I Choose... (Gossip/Clique)
- This activity focuses on the importance of thinking through and planning to
promote healthy decision making.

Practice What You Preach (Bullying/Teasing)
- This activity will help girls focus on common problems encountered by those in
their peer group and determine appropriate ways to deal with those problems.

Under Pressure (Peer pressure)
- In this activity girls will gain insight into their beliefs regarding sexuality and
handling sexual pressure.
●
I’m OK, You’re OK (Rejection)
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- This activity shows the girls that sometimes no matter how hard we try, we fail.
It will teach the girls that when they fail, they have to pull themselves together and move
on.
Possible scenarios that we can use are:
1. Girl A and Girl B are talking in the hallway at school. A guy who is friends with one of
the girls walks up to the group and invites Girl A to come to an after- prom party. Girl A
turns and looks at Girl B and says “Oh, well...” She then turns back to the boy and says,
“I guess I can go”. The guy then says, “Hey Girl B!” and walks off. (Rejection) adapted
from the Negaunee Action Troupe.
Discuss how you would cope with this situation. Discuss how you would regulate your
emotions in this situation.
The girls are asked to demonstrate how they would respond in this situation.
2. Guy A and Girl B, who are good friends, went to the movies last night. A girl walks by
them at their locker and overhears them talking about the movie. This girl then proceeds
to go and tell her friend that Guy A and Girl B went to the movies together last night.
The rumor then spreads around the school from the couple holding hands to kissing at
the movies. At this point a girl walks up to Girl A and says “I heard you and Guy B were
making out at the movies last night.” Girl A says, “We are just friends!” This girl then
says,” That’s not what I heard!” and walks away. (Gossip/Cliques) adapted from the
Negaunee Action Troupe.
Discuss how you would cope with this situation. Discuss how you would regulate your
emotions in this situation.
The girls are asked to demonstrate how they would respond in this situation.
3. At a party, a popular girl invites you to join her and her friends as they drink alcohol.
You initially say, “No, thanks….I’m okay,” but they begin to make fun of you for being so
“straight” and “pure.” They laugh at you and tell you it’s time to grow up and stop being
such a little girl. (Teasing and bullying)
Page 48 of 65
Adapted from:
http://teachingthem.com/2011/01/30/conversation-starters-for-teenage-girls-scenarios/
Discuss how you would cope with this situation. Discuss how you would regulate your
emotions in this situation.
The girls are asked to demonstrate how they would respond in this situation.
4. You’ve told your parents that you are going to a sleepover at a friend’s house, but
when you get there, you find out that the girls have planned a secret trip to a local
dance club. They are busy getting dressed and putting on make-up so that they look
“legal,” and one of the girls says that she is a good friend with the bouncer at the door.
He promised that he would let them all in as long as they looked old enough. You
express your hesitation about getting caught to your friend’s. They start to roll their eyes
and say, “It’s going to be fine, we’re not going to get caught!”
(Peer Pressure)
Adapted from:
http://teachingthem.com/2011/01/30/conversation-starters-for-teenage-girls-scenarios/
Discuss how you would cope with this situation. Discuss how you would regulate your
emotions in this situation.
The girls will be asked to demonstrate how they would respond in this situation.
9b. Find two apps that could work along with your program. Explain them and
link to them and briefly say how you could use them to support your
programming model.
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School 26 follows Kate, a student whose nomadic family has made it difficult for her to
maintain long-term friendships. As she enrolls at her 26th new school, she and her
parents strike a deal: if Kate makes good friends here, the family will stay put. Now the
player must help Kate use intuition, empathy, and strategy to build friendships and
navigate the often-treacherous social hierarchies of high school in this unique game of
social mastery.
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.expb.school26&hl=en
iProblem is a free advice column and social network in which people can ask a question
and other people in the social network can respond to the question to assist them in
their quest.
This app is available through the iTunes store.
We believe these apps would be beneficial in assisting with our programming model.
School 26 is a game in which girls can learn to deal with social situations as being the
new girl in school trying to fit in and making friends. With the iProblem app, girls can
utilize the advice column and get answers from not only their peers, but other people in
their social networks. Both of these apps relate to our program model because they
involve learning how to deal with various social situations and how to handle the results,
whether it is positive or negative.
Page 50 of 65
Section 4: Behavior Change Models & Tests
10. What are behavior change models?
Behavior change models are methods based on different theories used to change
undesirable behaviors or to increase positive behaviors in people. The different
behavior change models provide us with valuable information, such as the different
stages people experience in a behavior change that we, as health professionals, can
use to assist us in improving people’s overall health.
10b. Identify and briefly describe six commonly used in health and link to the
sources.
Transtheoretical Model of Health Behavioral Change:
The Transtheoretical Model of Health Behavioral Change is a model that assesses
individuals’ readiness to change their behaviors and is categorized into different phases.
The first phase is Precontemplation, in which the individual has no desire to change and
has not thought about changing. The second phase is Contemplation, in which the
individual is thinking about changing, but not sure on how to change his/her behavior.
The third phase is the Preparation stage, in which the individual has begun to take small
steps in changing the unhealthy behavior. The fourth stage is the Action stage, in which
the individual has acquired the knowledge to change and has implemented that
knowledge fully in his/her lifestyle. The fifth stage is the Maintenance stage, in which
the individual has changed the unhealthy behavior and has now begun to regulate the
new behavior to avoid relapse. The last stage is the Termination stage, in which the
individual is confident he/she will not return to his/her old unhealthy behavior.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10170434
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Health Belief Model,
According to the Health Belief Model, the likelihood that someone will take action to
prevent illness depends upon the individual's perception that: they are personally
vulnerable to the condition; the consequences of the condition would be serious; the
precautionary behavior effectively prevents the condition; and the benefits of reducing
the threat of the condition exceed the costs of taking action.
http://drzaius.ics.uci.edu/meta/classes/informatics161_fall06/papers/10aRedding_HealthBehaviorModels.pdf
Theory of Reasoned Action/Theory of Planned Behavior,
The theory of reasoned action states that the intention to perform a particular behavior
is strongly related to the actual performance of that behavior. Two basic assumptions
that underlie the Theory of Reasoned Action are: behavior is under volitional control,
and people are rational beings.
http://drzaius.ics.uci.edu/meta/classes/informatics161_fall06/papers/10aRedding_HealthBehaviorModels.pdf
Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory is a behavioral prediction theory that represents a
clinical approach to health behavior change. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
emphasizes what people think and its effect on their behavior. SCT proposes that
behavior can be explained in terms of triadic reciprocity between three key concepts
which operate as determinants of each other. Reciprocal determinism forms the basic
organizing principle of SCT. This important concept states that there is a continuous,
dynamic interaction between the individual, the environment, and behavior. Thus, a
change in one of these factors impacts on the other two. SCT involves numerous key
concepts, which have been associated with each of the three main constructs for the
purpose of describing the SCT.
http://drzaius.ics.uci.edu/meta/classes/informatics161_fall06/papers/10aRedding_HealthBehaviorModels.pdf
Page 52 of 65
Health Action Process Model
The Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) suggests that the adoption, initiation, and
maintenance of health behaviors must be explicitly conceived as a process that consists
of at least a motivation phase and a volition phase. The latter might be further
subdivided into a planning phase, action phase, and maintenance phase. It is claimed
that perceived self-efficacy plays a crucial role at all stages along with other cognitions.
http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/health/hapa.htm
I-Change model: The core of the I-Change model is the Attitude-Social Influence-Selfefficacy (ASE) model which is comparable to the Theory of Planned Behavior, but
incorporates modeling and social support as social influences besides subjective norms.
The I-Change model combines the ASE model with insight from stages of change
models and action planning models to provide a comprehensive framework to study and
facilitate behavior change processes. It assumes that the behavioral change process
can be distinguished in three phases: 1) Awareness, 2) Motivation and 3) Action. For
each phase, specific change determinants have been proposed.
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/10/69
11. How could we use behavior change models to help our program more
effectively - which model would we use?
We can use behavior change models to assist with our program by understanding there
are different approaches everyone takes in changing a behavior and by utilizing these
models we can understand the different phases our participants will experience.
For our program, we would use the I-Change model as it is a model that incorporates
modeling and social support as social influences and these are some of the things girls
need to understand today.
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Section 5: Evaluation Models and Internal Validity
12. What is internal validity?
Internal validity is the validity which determines if the program administered was actually
the cause of the improvement in the participants’ results and not the result of an outside
source.
13. What evaluation design will we use and why? Graphically depict and label
the design in O’s and X’s and indicate what each O and X means relative to our
specific project.
For our program we will be using the Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design.
To accomplish this design, we will administer the pre- and post-test to girls in our
program and to create a control group we will pre- and post-test girls in a neighboring
school without administering the program to the control group.
Page 54 of 65
Girls in Our
Program:
Girls in the
Control Group:
O
X
O
Pre-test
Emotional SelfEfficacy Test
48/120 points
Overall mean
Score
Our 8-week
I.N. C.H.A.R.G.E.
Program
Post-test
Emotional SelfEfficacy Test
96/120 points
Overall mean
Score
Combined Girls Circle
Program (Steese, et al,
2006), G.I.R.L.S.
Activities (Taylor &
Trice-Black, 2007),
Activities from
Negaunee/Westwood
ACTion Troupe (“What
is westwood”), and
scenarios adapted from
Teaching Them
(“Conversation starters”)
O
O
Pre-test
Emotional SelfEfficacy Test
48/120 points
Overall mean
Score
Post-test
Emotional SelfEfficacy Test
48/120 points
Overall mean
Score
Page 55 of 65
14. Now, using symbols from our mission, we will graphically depict the
evaluation design in our symbols vs. the O’s and X’s.
Girls in Our
Program:
Girls in the
Control Group:
Pre-test
Emotional SelfEfficacy Test
48/120 points
Overall mean
Score
Pre-test
Emotional SelfEfficacy Test
48/120 points
Overall mean
Score
Our 8-week
I.N. C.H.A.R.G.E.
Program
Combined Girls Circle
Program (Steese, et al,
2006), G.I.R.L.S.
Activities (Taylor &
Trice-Black, 2007),
Activities from
Negaunee/Westwood
ACTion Troupe (“What
is westwood”), and
scenarios adapted from
Teaching Them
(“Conversation starters”)
Post-test
Emotional SelfEfficacy Test
96/120 points
Overall mean
Score
Post-test
Emotional SelfEfficacy Test
48/120 points
Overall mean
Score
15. Restating our mission. What is our Mission Fit Question? How is the
evaluation design related to our mission? That is, evaluation is about “mission
fit” - how will we know if our mission was accomplished?
Our mission is to promote girls’ self-efficacy for social situations through education. Our
Mission Fit Question: Did we effectively promote girls’ self-efficacy for social situations?
To determine if our evaluation design is related to our mission, we will check the results
of the post-test administered to the girls after they have completed our program. If the
overall mean results have increased, we have met our mission.
Page 56 of 65
Section 6: Marketing and Communication … & Social Media Models
16. Using Innovative and contemporary techniques/methods/artifacts please
create a Marketing tool and a Communication tool or means to communicate to
participants in your program about your program.
To market our program, we have started a Facebook group page explaining our
program. We would post this group on local High School Facebook pages. Students
could request information regarding the group and obtaining
membership.
https://www.facebook.com/inchargeforgirls
Additionally, we will contact local high schools to determine if the students have email
accounts. If so, after we have gotten permission from the schools, we will send a mass
email explaining our program to the teenage girls at the different schools.
To communicate to participants in our program about our program, we will create a
private Facebook group in which only members of the group would be able to see posts
regarding the program. Also, the group would be private in which only members of the
group would be able to see who is involved with the group.
Section 7. Grants
17. What is a foundation/granting agency whose mission is to support missions
like ours? Identify the foundation, and hot link to it. Defend the compatibility of
its mission/purpose with yours. How much money would it grant for a project like
ours?
Page 57 of 65
The Foundation that we chose is the Open Meadows Foundation. It is a grant-making
organization that seeks projects that promote gender/racial/economic justice. The
projects must be led by and benefit women and girls, particularly those from vulnerable
communities. The foundation provides grants up to $2000. It funds projects that are:
designed and implemented by women and girls that reflect the diversity of the
community served by the project in both its leadership and organization, promote
building community power, and have limited financial access or have encountered
obstacles in their search for funding.
http://www.openmeadows.org/
Its mission is compatible with our mission because we both seek to empower females.
The organization funds projects that must be led by and benefit women and girls,
particularly those from vulnerable communities.
We believe that it would take $2000.00 to fund our project. The costs that we would
incur to implement this program are as follows:
Girls Circle Facilitator Manual-$99.00
G.I.R.L.S In Real Life Situations Manual-$34.15 (Amazon.com)
Supplies- $266.15
Room donated by a local church
Facilitator-$200.00 x 8 weeks= $1600.00 (1 1/2 hours + travel each week)
(The average cost for marriage and family counseling is about $100 per session
http://www.counsel-search.com/articles/marriage-family-counseling_71.htm)
Page 58 of 65
Section 8: Reflection Piece for all members
This project has been challenging, yet has provided us with many skills needed
to be successful in the field of Community Health Education. We have been taught not
only how to find relevant literature, but also how to determine if the reviewed literature is
valid and reliable. This is a much needed skill in the Community Health Education field
as planning health education programs requires quite a bit of research to determine if
an intervention is needed and how to implement the program.
We were able to practice using the program planning and evaluation model and
this has equipped us with the knowledge on how to use this model for our work
opportunities in the future. Using this model we had to critically think about the need of
adolescent girls, and what can be done to improve the negative aspects of it. We
learned some new concepts, like internal and external validity, and established how
they apply to programs that we plan and implement.
Throughout this project we have had the opportunity to work collaboratively as a
group and we also worked individually. These are important skills to have in the career
world as employers want employees who can think for themselves yet also have the
capability to work well within a group.
By utilizing sources from the Internet to create our project, we have learned the
importance of technology in today's society. We found that Google Docs was a helpful
tool to utilize as a method of working together from our homes. We also created a
Weebly page to display our project and presentation and this was a new technological
experience for us.
Page 59 of 65
By analyzing and synthesizing various articles for this project, we have been
required to think critically in determining whether the information was valid and
reliable. We had to think critically about our target audience to be able to develop a
project and display tools that would appeal to them. To accomplish this, we had to draw
upon our creative and innovative abilities.
As we worked together, our individual strengths and abilities emerged. As a
group, we learned to draw upon these assets to get our project completed. We learned
to recognize our fellow group members’ contributions and encourage each other as the
project progressed.
Overall, this project has been both challenging and rewarding. We have learned
many valuable things regarding Program Planning and Evaluation, while also learning
how to promote girls’ self-efficacy for social situations. This class has provided us with
the knowledge of most of the main components to become effective Community Health
Educators.
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