Designing Research
Elke Johanna de Buhr, PhD
Tulane University
Textbook Chapters
• Creswell, Chapter 3, 4, 6 and 7
• Salkind, Chapter 2 and 13
Your Research Proposal
I. Introduction
•
•
•
•
A. Problem/purpose statement
B. Research question(s)
C. Hypothesis
D. Definitions of terms
II. Review of the relevant literature (the more complete, the better)
• A. Importance of the question being asked
• B. Current status of the topic
• C. Relationship between the literature and the problem statement
III. Method
•
•
•
•
A. Target population
B. Research design and sampling
C. Data collection plans
D. Proposed analysis of the data
IV. Implications and limitations
Research Proposal: Part I
I. Introduction
• A. Problem/purpose statement
• B. Research question(s)
• C. Hypothesis (if any)
• D. Definitions of terms
Research Proposal: Part II
II. Review of the relevant
literature (the more complete,
the better)
• A. Importance of the question being
asked
• B. Current status of the topic
• C. Relationship between the
literature and the problem
statement
Research Proposal: Part III
III. Method
• A. Target population
• B. Research design and sampling
• C. Data collection plans
• D. Proposed analysis of the data
Research Proposal: Part IV
IV. Implications and limitations
(Section discussing generalizability,
reliability and validity of the
collected data.)
How to Start
• You start with an idea…
• Based on knowledge
• Based on experience
• Relevant?
• Feasible?
• Ethical?
• Original?
Refining Your Idea
• Review of the literature
• Scope of the research?
• Regional focus?
• Thematic focus?
• Types of data collection?
Part 1: Problem/Purpose
Statement
• Problem statement:
• Describes the problem or issue leading to the
need for the study
• Purpose statement:
• Establishes the intent of the study
• Qualitative vs. quantitative purpose statements
(see Creswell, pp. 111-126)
Example: Case Study
Creswell
Example: Experimental Study
Creswell
Example: Mixed Methods
Study
Creswell
Part 2: Research Questions
• Questions that the research will
attempt to answer
• Methodology needs to enable you to
answer these questions
• Often one (broad) central question,
followed by sub-questions
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
questions (see Creswell, pp. 129-142)
Example: Case Study
Creswell
Example: Mixed Methods
Study
Creswell
Part 3: Hypotheses
• Research questions vs. hypotheses:
• Quantitative research questions inquire about
the relationships among variables that the
investigator seeks to know
• Quantitative hypotheses are predictions the
researcher makes about the expected
relationships among variables
• Null hypotheses vs. directional/nondirectional hypotheses (see Creswell,
pp. 132-137)
Example: Null Hypotheses
Creswell
Example: Directional/NonDirectional Hypotheses
Creswell
Standard Use of Language in
Hypotheses
Creswell
Dependent vs. Independent
Variables
• Dependent (outcome) variables
• Results of the influence of independent variables
• In experiments, they are examined as the outcome
of an intervention
• Independent (predictor) variables
• (Probable) cause, influence or affect the outcome
• In experiments, they are manipulated or changed
to examine their effects on the dependent
variables
Part 4: Definition of Terms
• All key terms need to be clearly
defined
• Critical concepts need to be
operationalized
• Review the literature for standard
definitions and established ways of
measurement
Writing a Research Proposal
Writing the Proposal
• What are the major points that will be
addressed in the proposal?
• How will these major points convey a
coherent study?
• What are the core arguments to be
advanced in the proposal?
Creswell
9 questions one should ask when
writing a research proposal:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
What do readers need to better understand the topic?
What do readers need to know about the topic?
What do you propose to study?
What is the setting, and who are the people you will study?
What methods do you plan to use to collect data?
How will you analyze the data?
How will you validate the findings?
What ethical issues will your study present?
What do preliminary results show about the practicability
and value of the proposed study?
Creswell
Designing the Sections of a
Proposal
• Specify the sections early in the design of a proposal
• Find proposals that other students have authored
under your advisor and look at them closely
• Determine whether your program or institution
offers a course on proposal development or some
similar topic
• Sit down with your advisor, and go over his or her
preferred format for a proposal
Creswell
Writing Ideas
• Read widely fiction and nonfiction
• Read good literature
• Always think about how the ideas writers
share in their works might be applied in
writing good research
Creswell
Writing as Thinking
• Write ideas down early in the process rather
than talking about them
• Work through several drafts of a proposal
rather than trying to polish the first draft
• Do not edit at the early-draft stage
• Start with an outline
• Write a draft and shift and sort ideas
• Finally, edit and polish each sentence
Creswell
The Habit of Writing
• Make writing a daily activity
• Chart your daily activities in one-hour blocks so you can identify possible
writing time
• Write while you are fresh
• Avoid writing in binges
• Write in small regular amounts
• Schedule writing to allow for work on specific manageable chunks
• Keep a daily chart, account for a) time spent writing, b) page equivalents
finished, and c) percentage of planned task completed
• Plan beyond daily goals
• Share your writing with supportive, constructive peers before going public
• Try to work on two or three writing projects concurrently so that you do
not become overloaded with any one
Creswell
The Habit of Writing (cont.)
The following are suggested exercises that may improve
one’s writing:
• Describe an object by its parts and dimensions
• Write a conversation between two people
• Write a set of directions for a complicated task
• Take a subject and write about it three different ways
• Choose a physical location for writing that is not a
distraction
Creswell
Readability of the Manuscript
Before writing, consider how you will enhance its readability for the
audience:
• Use consistent terms throughout the proposal
• Consider how narrative thoughts of different types guide the
reader:
•
•
•
•
Umbrella thoughts: General or core ideas
Big thoughts in writing: Specific ideas
Little thoughts: Reinforcing ideas
Attention or interest thoughts: Meant to keep the reader on track, organize
ideas
• Use coherence to add to the readability of the manuscript: Connect
sentences and paragraphs in the manuscript
See Example 4.5
Creswell
Voice, Tense, and “Fat”
• Keep the essential words and delete the passive voice
• Scale down qualifiers, eliminate overused phrases
• Reduce excessive quotations, use of italics, and parenthetical
comments
• Use the active voice as much as possible, if the subject acts,
the voice is active
• Use strong active verbs
• Pay close attention to the tense of your verbs, use the present
tense to add vigor to the study
• Expect to edit and revise drafts of a manuscript to trim fat,
this process typically consists of writing, reviewing, and
editing
Creswell
Judging a Research Proposal
Criteria for Judging a Research
Proposal
Salkind
Criteria for Judging a Research
Proposal (cont.)
Salkind
Criteria for Judging a Research
Proposal (cont.)
Salkind
Group Discussion
1. Initial research ideas
2. Quantitative vs. qualitative
research proposals
3. Primary vs. secondary data
4. Use of theory
5. Review of the available evidence
6. Other questions/concerns