The Gender Regime of the US
The Gender Regime of the US
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Definition of Gender Regime:
the beliefs, customs, social structures, laws and
institutions that structure women (and men’s)
participation in civil society, the economy, and the
state (Brunell, Lecture Notes, “Intro to Gender Regimes”).
The Gender Regime of the US
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This presentation will discuss women’s status and roles in
each of the three spheres comprising a Gender Regime:
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Civil Society
the Economy
the State (Politics)
The Gender Regime of the US
Civil Society
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Civil Society comprises the individual, family, groups (both
formal and informal)
Women play important and often under recognized roles in US
Civil Society
They are engines of social capital formation through their work in
informal social networks
They are social activists and political entrepreneurs
And, they are central figures in American families; in fact, nearly
one-fourth of American children grow up in mother-only
households (http://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/famsoc1.asp)
The Gender Regime of the US
Civil Society: Religion
Religion in US 2001
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American women’s roles in
family and society have
been significantly shaped
by beliefs and values of
America’s predominant
religion: Christianity
Refused
5%
No Religion
14%
Other
4%
Christian
77%
The Gender Regime of the US
Religion: Christianity
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The first settlers of the US were
Protestant Christians seeking freedom
to practice their version of Christianity
The Founders of the American
Republic were Christians who
espoused their belief in god and saw
him as the source of “man’s
inalienable rights”
Thus, while American society has in
some ways grown more secularized
over time, the American Republic has
been profoundly shaped by Christian
beliefs and practices
The Gender Regime of the US
Religion: Christianity
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Christianity posits that the
world was created by an
omnipotent, omniscient
god
While most theologians
describe the Christian god
as being “genderless” or
“beyond gender,” most
Christians refer to god as
“He” and “God, the Father”
The Gender Regime of the US
Religion: Christianity
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Most Christian denominations
also deny women full
participation in the church by
refusing to ordain them or
allow them to play pastoral or
sacramental roles
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For these and many other
theological reasons, many
feminists refer to Christianity
as a patriarchal religion
The Gender Regime of the US
Patriarchy
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Patriarchy is defined as:
1: social organization marked by the supremacy of the father in the clan or family,
the legal dependence of wives and children, and the reckoning of descent and
inheritance in the male line; broadly : control by men of a disproportionately
large share of power (Merriam-Webster On-line, http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/patriarchy).
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The US qualifies as a patriarchal society in that
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Property, inheritance and family name were exclusively male rights until the
latter part of the 20th Century.
Even today, the male-headed family is the cultural ideal and legal norm.
Female-headed families are pathologized; in fact, socially, they do not exist
except in the case where there is no male present in the home.
The Gender Regime of the US
Economy
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One reason female headed households are of concern is that
they are disproportionately poor.
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This is partially explained by the fact that these households are
surviving on one income.
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However, it also reflects the undervaluing of women’s labor, the
concentration of women in the lowest paying jobs and
professions, and the ways that women’s responsibility for child
rearing disadvantage their work force participation.
The Gender Regime of the US
Motherhood
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Before going any further, we need to address an issue
that has been raised by the presentation thus far.
That is: the apparent conflation of women with
motherhood.
The Gender Regime of the US
Motherhood
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I am not arguing that to be a mother is to be quintessentially female, or
that all women become mothers.
It is true, however, that at least 80% of all American women DO
become mothers during their lifetimes
(http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/fertility.html).
And that motherhood has a significant negative impact on their lifetime
earnings (Crittenden, The Price of Motherhood, pp.88-93).
It is also a fact that women are often viewed as “potential mothers”
affecting the way they are perceived by employers (“We shouldn’t hire
her; she’s just going to go off and get pregnant and leave us holding
the bag.”) and many people in society (“Women shouldn’t be in
combat because they are somebody’s mother.”)
The Gender Regime of the US
Economy
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In 2006, American women earned 81% of men’s wages.
They worked an average of 36 hours/wk (compared to
men’s 42).
Among married heterosexual couples, women
contributed only 35 percent of the family income in
2005.
Yet, 25.5% of women in two earner heterosexual
couples earned more than the men (2005).
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Women in the Labor Force: A
Databook (2007 Edition). Available at: http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlfdatabook2007.htm
The Gender Regime of the US
Politics
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Women are under-represented in US politics
The US ranks below the OECD average for the percentage of
women in its national parliament
Percentage of parliamentary seats held by women
2005 or latest year available
Pourcentage de s i
ges parlementaires d
tenus par des
femmes
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
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The Gender Regime of the US
Politics
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Women comprise a higher percentage
of state and local officials in the US.
In 2008, women comprised 23.8% of
all statewide elective executive offices
across the country (still below the 30%
goal set by the UN and found be
“critical mass” for having an impact.)
In State Legislature in 2008, women
comprised 23.7% of state legislators
in the United States.
Since 1971, the number of women
serving in state legislatures has more
than quintupled.
Source: Center for American Women and
Politics, Eagleton Institute, Rutgers
University.
http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/Facts.html#ele
ctive
The Gender Regime of the US
Summary
Regime Type
Ideals
Dominant Religion(s)
Indivi dual Freedom
(fro m gover nment)
Christianity
The Legal Protection of
Private Property (the
pursuit of happiness,
the fruits of oneХs
labors)
Christian
Indivi dualist
Regime
Strong separation
between Public and
Private Spheres
Equal Opportunity
Choice
Belief in god
Self-Reliance
ТThe Lord helps those
who help themselvesУ
Protestants more numerous
overall , but Catholics single
larges t Christian
denomination
Ideal s for Women
Women and girls are
encourage d to develop
stereotypically feminine
traits and talents (e.g.,
passivity , being good
listeners, working
cooperativ ely, putting
othersХinterest ahead of
their own).
Description of the Gender Regime
Few formal/legal barriers to gender
equal ity exist.
Yet, Тthe glass ceilingУ is still in effect
as womenХs dual roles as mothers and
workers make s it less likely to have th e
freed om to work long and irregular
hours demanded in high status jobs.
Women are significantly
underrepres ented in the upper
Women are excluded from
Competitive, assertive an d echelons of corporate governanc e and
in national politics and policy-making.
Catholic and most Protestant successful women are
church hierarch ies, but are
often pathologized and
Women are concentrated in fe w
ordaine d in some faiths/sects criticized for not being
occupations and these are the most
(Presbyterian, Reform
feminine enough.
poorly paid.
Judais m, e.g.)
Women must always
Market mechanisms are preferre d;
maintain a youthful
Many women are active in
gender inequalities are seen as the
other forms of spirituality, e.g. appearanc e.
result of "priva te" or individual choices;
New Age, pagani sm, Native
American spiritual practices. Motherhoo d is seen as
ТwomenХ
s most important Reproductiv e labor not recognized as
job.У
contribution to society/economy merely a personal choice, lifestyle.
The Gender Regime of the US
Sources
Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2007. Women in the Labor Force: A
Databook (2007 Edition).
Available at: http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook2007.htm
Center for American Women and Politics. 2008. “Women in Elective Office 2008.”
Center for American Women and Politics. Eagleton Institute. Rutgers University.
Available at: http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/Facts.html#elective
Crittenden, Ann. 2001. The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job
in the World Is Still the Least Valued. New York: Henry Holt & Co.
The Gender Regime of the US
Sources
Dye Lawler, Jane. 2005. Fertility of American Women: June 2004.
Current Population Reports. US Department of Commerce.
Department of Labor. US Census Bureau. Washington, DC: US
Government Printing Office.
Available at: http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/fertility.html
Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. 2007.
America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being, 2007.
Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Available at: http://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/index.asp
Merriam-Webster On-line. 2008. Entry for Patriarchy. Accessed June 10, 2008.
Available at: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/patriarchy
The Gender Regime of the US
Sources
U.S. Census Bureau. 2008. Statistical Abstract of the United States:
2008. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
Available at: http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2008edition.html