Mountain Flying
Awareness
Risk Management
Safety Practices
by Kurt S. Kleiner - CFI
According to Aviation Space Environment Medicine,
232 airplanes crashed within 50 nautical miles of
Aspen, CO, between 1964 and 1987. A total of 202
people died and 69 were seriously injured. This points
out the need for better training in mountain flying.
Hazard Categories
Aircraft Performance
– Effects of Density Altitude
– Aerodynamics of Maneuvering Flight
Weather/Environmental
– Convective and Orographic lifting forces
– Micrometeorology: Terrain and Wind Interaction
– Winds Aloft and Mountain Wave
Unforgiving Terrain
– Crossing Ridges
– Operating in Canyons
– Take-offs and Landings at Remote Sites
Human Factors
–
–
–
–
Aeromedical Factors
Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
Training and Proficiency
Contingency Planning and Survival Strategies
Density Altitude
• Defined as “pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature.”
• High relative humidity also affects DA, but to a very
minimal extent. It is rarely ever factored into calculations.
• In terms of aircraft performance, another way to look at
DA is: “Density Altitude is the altitude the aircraft thinks it
is at, and performs accordingly.”
• Questions to be answered:
– What is “Pressure Altitude?”
– What is “standard” vs. “nonstandard” temperature?”
– How does Density Altitude affect aircraft performance
and mountain flying safety?
What is “Pressure Altitude?”
Pressure altitude is the
altitude displayed on an
altimeter when it is set to an
agreed baseline pressure
setting. The International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO)
utilizes the barometric pressure
setting of 29.92 inches of
mercury (Hg) as equivalent to
the air pressure at mean sea
level (MSL) in the International
Standard Atmosphere.
29.92 is
STANDARD
pressure.
When barometric pressure is above or below the “standard” 29.92 inches of
Hg, Pressure Altitude (PA) will be lower or higher than field elevation. Pilots
acquire the current barometric pressure from any one of several official FAAapproved sources of weather information. This conversion chart may be used
to assist in calculating Pressure Altitude on any given day.
SUBTRACT
ADD
28.3
28.4
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.9
29.0
29.1
29.2
29.3
29.4
29.5
29.6
29.7
29.8
29.9
1535 feet
1435
1340
1245
1150
1050
955
865
770
675
580
485
390
300
205
110
20
29.92
30.0
30.1
30.2
30.3
30.4
30.5
30.6
30.7
30.8
30.9
31.0
-
0 feet
75
165
255
350
440
530
620
710
805
895
965
Note: HIGH atmospheric pressure is
better for aircraft performance than
LOW pressure.
What is “Standard” vs. “Non-Standard”
temperature?
The International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) baseline for all
aircraft performance data is a
“Standard Temperature” of 15 deg.
Celcius (or 59 deg. F) AT SEA
LEVEL, and a mean standard
atmospheric lapse rate of 2 deg. C
(or 3.5 deg. F) per 1,000 ft. of
altitude (up to 36,000 ft.)
The following chart establishes the
STANDARD TEMPERATURE for
each 1,000 ft. of altitude.
Standard Temperature
at MSL Altitudes
Altitude
14,000
13,000
12,000
11,000
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
Sea level
Deg. (C)
-13
-11
-9
-7
-5
-3
-1
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
Deg. (F)
10
13.5
17
20.5
24
27.5
31
34.5
38
41.5
45
48.5
52
55.5
59
To determine
DENSITY
ALTITUDE, add
117.4 ft. to the
Pressure Altitude
for each degree
Celcius above
standard temp.
Solve for Density Altitude
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.9
29.0
29.1
29.2
29.3
29.4
29.5
29.6
29.7
29.8
29.9
29.92
30.0
30.1
30.2
30.3
30.4
1340
1245
1150
1050
955
865
770
675
580
485
390
300
205
110
20
0 feet
- 75
- 165
- 255
- 350
- 440
Airport elevation:
7,420 ft.
Altimeter/Barometer: 29.3”
Temp.
80 deg. F or 27 C
(Std. temp. at 7,500 = 0 deg. C)
Airport Elevation (MSL)
Correct for non-std. pressure
7,420
+ 580
8,000’
Pressure Altitude (PA) =
Current temp. is 27 deg.
warmer than std. temp.
Calculate for non-std. Temp.
27 X 117.4 ft. = 3,170 ft.
Add temp. factor to PA:
DENSITY ALTITUDE =
PA
8,000’
+ 3,170
11,170’
The non-standard temperature conversion is usually
calculated via the Density Altitude chart shown below.
A copy of this chart can be
found in Chapter 10 of the
FAA “Pilot’s Handbook of
Aeronautical Knowledge”
available at www.faa.gov
and in several Aviation and
Weather publications.
Another
example:
PA = 5,000 ft.
Temp.= 40 C
DA = 8,800 ft.
How does Density Altitude adversely affect
aircraft performance?
1. Increases the runway distance
required for take off and landing,
increases ground speed.
2. Decreases allowable payload,
service ceiling, climb performance,
and the ability to out-climb terrain
and downdrafts.
3. Reduces effectiveness of control
surfaces, engine, and propeller.
Normally aspirated (non-turbine)
engine horsepower output
decreases by 3% for each 1000 ft.
Know the limitations of your aircraft and how to use
the POH performance charts!
When the Density Altitude is 10,000 ft., this aircraft will not be
able to out-climb any downdraft that exceeds 230 feet per
minute. Downdrafts of 500 to 1,000 feet per minute (fpm) are
common on the immediate lee side of mountains when the
winds aloft exceed 25-30 knots, and areas of 2,000 fpm sink
are common on the lee side during mountain wave.
Gross
Weight
lbs.
2300
2000
1700
Sea Level & 59° F
5000' & 41° F
10,000' & 23°
Rate
Rate
Rate
Ind.
Fuel
Ind.
Fuel
Ind.
Fuel
of
of
of
Airspeed
Used Airspeed
Used Airspeed
Used
climb
Climb
Climb
mph
gal.
mph
gal Ft/min
gal.
ft/min
ft/min
ft/min
82 645 1.0
81 435 2.6
79 230 4.8
79 840 1.0
79 610 2.2
76 380 3.6
77 1085 1.0
76 825 1.9
73 570 2.9
“It just seemed to take forever to get off the ground….. I had to yank
hard on the stick at the last second to make it over the row of tree tops
directly in front of me. The last thing I remember was the sound of the
stall warning horn just before we hit the ground.”
Confession by an anonymous private pilot
Environmental Hazards and
Operational Limitations
Operating aircraft in the mountain weather
environment presents unique challenges to pilots.
•Poor aircraft performance due to high Density Altitude
•Strong areas of lift, sink, and turbulence
•Rapidly-forming summer thunderstorms
•Low cloud ceilings and “mountain obscuration”
Wind is the most dynamic element in mountain flying
and has the most immediate effect on aircraft
performance and safety of flight.
•On a large scale, the direction and strength of wind is
determined by the proximity of high and low pressure areas
and the gradient of change between them. Expect high wind
where the pressure gradient is high, as shown by isobars
compressed close together on weather maps.
•On the micro-scale, the speed and direction of wind flowing
through canyons and up/over mountain slopes is largely
determined by solar heating and the terrain itself.
•Moving air demonstrates the same FLUID PROPERTIES as
water flowing over and around rocks in a creek or river.
Favorable conditions and updrafts are found on the upwind
side of a mountain due to orographic lifting.
Downdrafts and turbulence may be encountered anywhere,
but are found in abundance on the leeward side. When the
wind speed exceeds 20-25 kts., avoid flying on the lee side
unless well above the altitude of the ridge or mountain top.
Expect an increase in wind
speed (venturi effect) and
possible change in direction
where air is forced through a
gap or constriction, such as a
saddle, mountain pass, or in
a canyon. When the wind is
light, proceed cautiously.
Solar Heating:
In the morning, the south and east sides of a canyon or
mountain will receive direct sunlight that triggers thermal
columns or bubbles of rising air if the airmass is unstable.
In the afternoon, look for lift on the southwest facing
slopes, especially where rock outcrops and areas without
trees can absorb heat and serve as trigger points.
Remember: What goes UP must
come DOWN. Wherever there is
favorable lift from a thermal, there is
sinking air somewhere nearby. In the
shear area where the rising air mixes
with sink, expect turbulence and
some noise from the stall horn.
Anatomy of a Thermal
If there is sufficient water vapor in the rising unstable
air, cumulus clouds will form when the thermal has
reached a height where the moisture visibly condenses.
When the lapse rate is weak, or if there is a stable layer
of air above, this can occur at an altitude below the
highest terrain. Though some terrain can become
obscured, you can expect only light turbulence.
The base of each fair-weather cumulus cloud
marks the top of a thermal. Expect rising air
beneath each cloud, sinking air between clouds
and turbulent air at altitudes below cloud base.
Glider pilots say, “There’s no place like cloud base!”
Thermal soaring doesn’t get any better than this.
Beware of rapid overdevelopment that
commonly occurs
during afternoon
mountain flights.
Tips for flying in mountain turbulence:
1. Flying conditions are most favorable during early morning
hours. Cooler temperatures (lower DA) improve aircraft
performance. Strong thermals are not normally produced
until late morning and then continue through the afternoon.
2. Maintain an airspeed well above stall speed, but at or
below the published maneuvering speed (Va) to avoid
excessive loads on the airframe. Research and understand
your aircraft performance limits.
3. If you encounter a strong downdraft, maintain adequate
altitude and clearance from terrain so that you can pitch
down (sacrificing altitude for airspeed if necessary) to
avoid a stall. Use only a shallow to moderate bank angle
to immediately turn toward lower terrain.
Tips for flying in mountain turbulence (continued):
4. Do not fly on the leeward side of a peak or ridge any
lower than eye level with the highest terrain if the wind
speed is more than 20-25 kts. to avoid the rotor. If the
wind speed is higher, increase your margin of altitude.
5. Become a devoted student of mountain weather so you
understand the cause of the turbulence, where and
when to expect it, and how to manage the risk.
Establish and adhere to personal limits that specify
maximum winds and minimum AGL altitudes.
Mountain Wave
This weather phenomena creates the
strongest downdrafts and most extreme
turbulence found in mountain flying, second
only to severe thunderstorms.
Necessary Ingredients for Mountain Wave:
1. Stable airmass (or inversion below 15,000 ft.)
2. Wind striking a mountain range from a direction within a
30 degree angle of directly perpendicular.
3. Wind speed of 25 kts. or greater striking the mountains
with higher wind speeds above, and no change in
direction.
Orographic lifting forces air upslope. The stable atmosphere
prevents further lifting and forces air to flow down the lee side
where it cools and becomes denser than surrounding air.
The air essentially “compresses and rebounds back” several
times as it seeks equilibrium and weakens. When the wind is
strong, multiple wave crests with intermittent bands of strong
lift and sink extend downwind for hundreds of miles.
Anatomy of Mountain
Wave conditions
Bands of mountain wave extend downwind, eastward from the
Sierra Nevada, makes the Owens Valley, CA a prime location
for glider pilots seeking world altitude records of over 40,000
feet. Cross country distance records are set on thermal flights.
Mountain wave is not always
visible if the air mass is dry.
When there is sufficient water
vapor in the atmosphere,
Altocumulus Lenticularis or
“Standing Lenticular” clouds
will form downwind of the
peaks, often in stacks.
Roll clouds and rotor clouds
have the innocent
appearance of small
cumulus clouds
that form beneath
a lenticular cloud.
Severe or extreme
turbulence is
found in or near
the rotor area.
A “cap” cloud often enshrouds mountain summits during wave
conditions. Note the “rotor cloud” that forms beneath the
Lenticular cloud marking an area of severe turbulence for all
aircraft. Many serious accidents have occurred when aircraft
flew through the rotor during strong mountain wave conditions.
NTSB Accident Report: Mountain Wave incident
•
NTSB Identification: DCA93MA033 . Probable Cause Approval Date: 5/10/1994
Scheduled 14 CFR EVERGREEN INTERNATIONAL Aircraft: BOEING 747-121, #N473EV
Accident occurred Wednesday, March 31, 1993 in ANCHORAGE, AK
Injuries: 5 Uninjured.
•
SHORTLY AFTER TAKEOFF FROM ANCHORAGE, THE AIRPLANE FLEW INTO AN AREA
OF SEVERE TURBULENCE, WHILE CLIMBING THROUGH AN ALTITUDE OF ABOUT 2000
FEET. THE NUMBER 2 ENGINE AND ENGINE PYLON SEPARATED FROM THE
AIRPLANE. THE FLIGHTCREW DECLARED AN EMERGENCY AND THE FLIGHT RETURN TO
ANCHORAGE, WHERE AN UNEVENTFUL LANDING WAS ACCOMPLISHED. THE
INVESTIGATION REVEALED THAT A STRONG EASTERLY WIND INTERACTED
WITH MOUNTAINS EAST OF ANCHORAGE, WHICH PRODUCED MOUNTAIN
WAVE ACTIVITY. THE AIRCRAFT ENCOUNTERED SEVERE OR POSSIBLY
EXTREME TURBULENCE. THERE WAS EVIDENCE THAT THIS RESULTED IN DYNAMIC
•
•
MULTI-AXIS LATERAL LOADINGS THAT EXCEEDED THE ULTIMATE LATERAL LOAD-CARRYING
CAPABILITY OF THE NUMBER 2 ENGINE PYLON, WHICH HAD ALREADY BEEN REDUCED BY THE
PRESENCE OF A FATIGUE CRACK NEAR THE FORWARD END OF THE PYLON'S FORWARD
FIREWALL WEB.
The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident as follows:
THE LATERAL SEPARATION OF THE NO. 2 ENGINE PYLON DUE TO AN ENCOUNTER
WITH SEVERE OR POSSIBLY EXTREME TURBULENCE THAT RESULTED IN DYNAMIC
MULTI-AXIS LATERAL LOADINGS THAT EXCEEDED THE ULTIMATE LATERAL LOADCARRYING CAPABILITY OF THE PYLON, WHICH WAS ALREADY REDUCED BY THE
PRESENCE OF THE FATIGUE CRACK NEAR THE FORWARD END OF THE PYLON'S
FORWARD FIREWALL WEB.
In addition to generating turbulence that is sufficient to significantly
damage aircraft or lead to loss of aircraft control, the more
prevailing danger to aircraft seems to be the effect on the climb
rate of an aircraft. There are several catastrophic aircraft accidents
on record in which the NTSB used the following language in their
statement of probable cause:
"The airplane collided with mountainous terrain after encountering
turbulence and downdrafts associated with mountain wave
conditions. It is probable that the maximum climb performance of
the aircraft was not capable of overcoming the strong downdrafts in
the area at the time.”
Recall this performance chart?
Gross
Weight
lbs.
2300
2000
1700
Sea Level & 59° F
5000' & 41° F
10,000' & 23°
Rate
Rate
Rate
Ind.
Fuel
Ind.
Fuel
Ind.
Fuel
of
of
of
Airspeed
Used Airspeed
Used Airspeed
Used
climb
Climb
Climb
mph
gal.
mph
gal Ft/min
gal.
ft/min
ft/min
ft/min
82 645 1.0
81 435 2.6
79 230 4.8
79 840 1.0
79 610 2.2
76 380 3.6
77 1085 1.0
76 825 1.9
73 570 2.9
You are the pilot of a light single engine aircraft that
contains this chart in the POH. The temperature is only
20 deg. F at your altitude of 11,000 ft. and your GPS is
indicating a 40 knot headwind. The best you can get from
your engine is 300 fpm of climb when pitched for Vy at
full power. Conditions are clear VFR, but Lenticular
clouds are streaked across the sky above you. You wish
to penetrate the lee side rotor of a 10,000 ft. peak just
ahead along your route. What decision(s) will you make?
Tips for flying
light aircraft near
mountain wave:
1. Avoid flight on the lee side of the peak whenever possible.
If you cannot fly around the area of wave and you must
cross through the lee side downdrafts, fly at an altitude
well above eye level with the top of the peak. A good rule
of thumb is to fly an altitude of at least one half the height
of the peak (from its base to top) above the peak.
For example, if the base of the peak is at 7,000 ft. and the
summit is 11,000 ft., add 2,000 ft. to the summit altitude and fly
over the lee side at no lower than 13,000 ft. for a safety margin.
Tips for flying light aircraft near mountain wave
(continued):
2. Avoid flying through or near the rotor found directly
beneath the Lenticular cloud where you might encounter
severe to extreme turbulence and loss of aircraft control.
3. Establish a personal maximum “winds aloft limit” (i.e. 30 or
40 kts.?) Don’t fly near wave if the wind speed is higher
until you receive training, acquire more experience, and
develop strategies for recognizing and avoiding rotors.
4. You may eventually learn to work the upwind side of the
wave crest to maximize your altitude gain. Once you find
the lift, turn into the wind, pitch for Vy or best L/D speed,
and crab back and forth, right and left. Establish a
“hovering” flight path like a seagull would, soaring above a
sand dune in a strong sea breeze using ridge lift.
Canyon Flying
Rule #1: Get instruction from a qualified flight
instructor experienced in mountain and canyon flying
before attempting to fly in canyons on your own.
Rule #2: Always be in a position where you can
descend and turn toward lower terrain at idle power.
(Always have a “way out.”)
Rule #3: Never fly up canyon toward rising terrain
beyond the “point of no return” from which you
cannot exercise Rule #2 above.
Tips for flying in canyons:
In addition to flying by Rules #1, 2, and 3……
1. Always stay far to one side of the canyon (preferably
the sunny side where thermals might provide lift) so you
have room to turn around and escape if necessary.
2. If you must fly IN a canyon, it is best to fly down-canyon
so there is always descending terrain ahead. Avoid flying
down the center where the most turbulent air is found.
3. Perform a high reconnaissance of the canyon before
descending into it. Assess the wind speed and direction,
locate areas of lift and sink, note hazards such as power
lines, and determine the safest route in and out in case
you need to escape.
Remaining far to one side of
the canyon allows ample
room to make a 180 degree,
shallow-to-moderate banked
turn to escape, if needed.
Flying over the sunny
south or southwest facing
slopes usually offers the
benefit of thermals and
additional lift from rising
air. There are exceptions
to this general rule which
you should know about.
When is the south or southwest facing slope of a canyon a place
where you might not benefit from thermals?
1. Overcast days and snow covered or heavily forested terrain
are not prone to surface heating and thermal generation.
2. If the atmospheric lapse rate is stable, or there is a
temperature inversion, thermals are weak or not triggered.
3. When a strong north wind is found at the top of a sunny south
aspect, the air will probably spill over and create downdrafts
and turbulence (rotors) on the south aspect, even on sunny,
unstable days. Look for ridge lift above the north aspect.
4. If there is a strong pressure gradient and a gravity wind (i.e.
a Chinook) is blowing down the canyon, thermals triggered by
surface heating will rarely stay intact or be useful for lift.
5. Even when thermal columns develop above a south aspect,
there are downdrafts and turbulence found on the edge of the
column and in the air between the areas of lift.
Pilots recall downdraft, crash, and hike for help
By MARGA LINCOLN - IR Staff Writer, Great Falls Tribune - 06/06/07
Two pilots said a surprise downdraft led their single-engine
plane to crash in the Elkhorn Mountains late Sunday morning.
Jon C. “J.C.” Kantorowicz, 58, of Great Falls said he was
practicing canyon flying with mountain flight instructor Sparky
Jim Imeson when a surprise downdraft pushed the plane down.
The practice was part of a training exercise during a mountain
flying safety training workshop this past weekend in Townsend.
The pilots were flying at approximately 300 feet, which left
little room to maneuver when the downdraft caught the
plane, Imeson said. Downdrafts are a natural cycle of the
air, Imeson said. However, so far that day, they had only
encountered updrafts. “The one spot where we did not need
a downdraft to be there, there was one,” Imeson said. “I was
trying to turn away from the hillside,” Kantorowicz said, but the aircraft
stalled. “I tried to fly between the snags.” The dead trees were about 60 feet tall.
When they touched down, the landing gear sheared off and the engine hit a rock,
Kantorowicz said. He said the whole accident happened in a span of five seconds.
Imeson, 62, a nationally renowned mountain flight instructor from Jackson, Wyo.,
said the plane went down at “11 a.m. (Sunday) on the dot.” Both pilots were able to
get out of the Aviat Husky, on their own power, following the crash, before it
completely burned.
Excerpt from NTSB report #LAX07-CA187
Winston, MT 6/3/07
…..They flew the first canyon at 300 feet agl, 70 mph, 20 degrees of flaps, along the
south side of the canyon, and rode a few thermals. Identifying areas where thermal
lift could be found was part of the instructional flight. He then crossed into another
canyon that was full of burned terrain and dead fall trees. This canyon he flew at 300
to 350 feet agl, 60 to 65 mph, and full flaps. The pilot angled his plane towards a
rock cliff expecting to pickup thermal lift from the warm rocks. He flew with the wing
tip about 10 feet from the cliff. The climb stopped, the airspeed fell off, and the wing
stalled. He turned left, applied full throttle, and lowered the nose of the airplane. The
descent was rapid as he tried to direct the airplane between deadfall trees into a
drainage gully. The airplane's descent continued and he tried to land the airplane as
gently as he could. After the collision with the sloped terrain, both pilots egressed the
airplane just before it was engulfed in flames. The pilot stated that the airplane and
engine had no mechanical failures or malfunctions during the flight.
The National Transportation Safety Board determines the probable cause(s) of
this accident as follows. The pilot's failure to maintain an adequate airspeed
while maneuvering at low altitude in a canyon that led to a stall. The pilot's
decision to fly along the canyon wall at a low altitude and low energy state was
a factor.
There is no specific reference in the NTSB Narrative Report
about the aircraft’s exact bank angle at the moment it stalled.
According to the manufacturer’s data, the Aviat Husky A1-B
has a stall speed of 43 mph or 37 kts. (power on, wings level,
flaps extended). As shown in the graph below, the wing will
stall at a 20% higher speed (52 mph) when banked to 47
degrees. Stall speed increases by 40% (60 mph.) if banked to
60 degrees. _________________________________________
The keys to safely flying out of
downdrafts and turbulence are:
•Airspeed well above stall
•Altitude (terrain clearance)
•Shallow/moderate bank angles
Factors that help include:
•Adequate engine horsepower
•Flight in favorable conditions:
Light winds, Low Density Alt.,
Stable Lapse Rate, etc.
Crossing Ridges:
When possible, approach
ridges from the upwind side
to benefit from the cushioning
effect of the upslope wind.
Approach the ridge with extra altitude (1,000 ft. AGL) at a
45 degree angle so you have adequate room to turn back
toward lowering terrain if a downdraft is encountered.
Once the ridge is crossed, turn toward lower terrain and
maintain airspeed as you penetrate the downdrafts and
turbulence on the lee side. If the terrain on the lee side is
a flat plateau, maintain extra altitude and airspeed. You
won’t have as much room to escape down-slope.
Cross ridges with an
escape plan in mind.
If the wind speed is greater than
25-30, give yourself plenty of
altitude (1,000 ft. +) so there is
plenty of room to pitch down and
descend toward lower terrain at
a safe airspeed through any
downdrafts.
Operations at
Remote Landing
Sites
Keys to Safety
•Acquire Proper Training
•Practice at easy sites to
gain proficiency
•Fly in pairs/groups
•Know the performance
capabilities and limitations
of your plane and yourself.
•Study the weather
•Have a contingency plan
Special considerations for backcountry airstrip operations:
•Weather and surface conditions can change by the hour.
•Carefully calculate takeoff/landing distance & performance data using
POH charts. Add a 50% safety margin to all published numbers.
•Download passenger/cargo weight for the density altitude. Make two
trips if needed. (Heavy aircraft need longer runways.)
•Must be proficient in short and soft field techniques. Practice them.
•If able, test the wind and inspect surface conditions first with a low
pass. Then go-around and land after making a second approach.
•Be prepared to camp if there’s bad weather or mechanical issues.
Human Factors in Mountain Flying:
•Review Aeromedical factors and 91.211 oxygen requirements.
•Acquire proper training from a certified flight instructor
experienced in mountain flying before attempting to fly in wave
conditions, over mountain ridges, or in canyons. Flying
sailplanes, hang gliders, or paragliders are some excellent
options for gaining additional knowledge and experience.
•Study mountain weather in great detail, as if your life depends
on knowing it well. The more you know and understand, the
better equipped you’ll be for assessing conditions, evaluating
situations, using sound judgment, and making good decisions.
•Train and review Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM) safety
bulletins, self-study courses, FAA advisory circular AC-60-22.
Incorporate ADM concepts in your personal flight operations.
Human Factors in Mountain Flying (continued):
•Establish and strictly adhere to a conservative list of personal
weather and operating minimums (with wide safety margins) until you
gain experience and proficiency. Suggested example for a novice:
Minimum 10 mi. visibility; 3,000 ft. AGL ceiling over mountains.
Don’t fly in mountains if wind exceeds 20 kts.
Stay out of canyons unless they are at least 1.5 miles wide.
Min. altitude 1000 ft. AGL and 1000 ft. horizontal distance from terrain
Fly at airspeeds no slower than 1.3 Vso
Don’t make any turns using a bank angle of more than 30 degrees.
Don’t go where Density Altitude is over 10,000 ft. (depends on aircraft)
Land only on established, maintained, and attended grass strips.
When able, fly in groups of two or three aircraft, especially if planning
to land at remote sites. The main safety benefit to this practice is that
another pilot can either land and fly out with a passenger (or go for help)
if one aircraft is damaged during a landing. Other benefits include
excellent photo opportunities, camaraderie, and learning from others.
Personal Survival Tips
Human Factors (continued):
1. Always carry enough food, water, and camping equipment to
survive at least 3-5 days in poor weather in the event you have
to make an emergency landing in the backcountry.
2. Carry some minimal personal survival equipment on your body
(i.e. in a vest or cargo pants pockets) in case the equipment in
#1 above is burned or inaccessible after an accident. Personal
equipment includes matches and fire starter, signal mirror,
space blanket, small handheld aviation radio, wool hat, etc.
3. Fly with at least three communication devices and spare
batteries (i.e. aircraft radios, hand held radio, cell phone,
personal ELT, signal flares, etc.)
4. Always tell someone exactly where you are going and when you
expect to return. (Giving this info. to Flight Service via a Flight
Plan may not be the best option, but is better than nothing.
Other local pilots who know the area are effective searchers.)