Beauty is an Illusion
The Philosophical and Social Impact of Japanese Animation
and Culture
Edward Ly
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1/25/2011
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Edward Ly
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxx
25 January 2011
Beauty is an Illusion:
The Philosophical and Social Impact of Japanese Animation and Culture
Abstract:
This paper explores a sector of Japanese media more commonly called anime, by
discussing the philosophical importance of anime to society, with topics such as gender, the
human body, technology, and religion. The author examines a variety of anime, including Grave
of the Fireflies, Fullmetal Alchemist, and Ouran High School Host Club, and explores how each
one influenced not just Japanese society, but the entire world. The themes within these anime
and many others have influenced viewers in both the US and Japan. This paper also responds to
the criticism against anime Japanese culture, especially how fans known as the otaku are not the
stereotypical loners society makes them out to be. Finally, this paper compares animated shows
and films from the United States to those in Japan and exposes the flaws of other forms of media,
including American animation.
Reader’s Note: In this paper, Japanese names are shown in their Japanese naming system
(family name then first name) instead of the American order (e.g., “Miyazaki Hayao” instead of
“Hayao Miyazaki”). The family name is used to cite sources.
Years in parentheses refer to the year the anime first debuted in Japan.
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In 1989, Miyazaki Tsutomu, one of the most notorious serial killers in Japan, was
arrested for mutilating and raping the corpses of four young girls, a series of crimes called “The
Little Girl Murders”. Police reported that he used the horror film, Flower of Flesh and Blood, as
a model for his crimes. This tragic event caused a big stir in Japan, bringing fear into the eyes of
every citizen in Japan and spread across the world. What is more disturbing is that the media
portrayed Miyazaki’s crime as something that is repeatable, saying that Miyazaki is one of the
many “hardcore otaku” out there, with an enormous amount of pornography, horror films, and
adult anime in his bedroom, and all the other “hardcore otaku” like him could eventually
continue this crime (Galbraith 153). While this claim is no less than farfetched, the Miyazaki
Tsutomu Incident was a small part of Japan’s dark history, leaving a scar on Japanese culture and
its future.
Japanese society has been in total flux for decades. Ever since World War II, Japanese
citizens have radically changed to cope with their losses in unique ways. Much of the early
Japanese film and media, particularly anime, have depicted apocalyptic settings to give Japanese
citizens a sense of identity while they rebuild their lost society. Nevertheless, that is not the only
effect anime has had on Japan. Due to the Miyazaki Tsutomu Incident, the media has sparked
tons of criticism on the effects of anime on its viewers. Nevertheless, despite the negativity
surrounding anime and Japanese culture in general, there is more to anime than what appears on
the surface. Japanese animation has proven to be a medium for ideas and creativity,
encompassing every genre imaginable and incorporating unique styles of animation with
philosophical themes to create works that have had great significance in society in Japan and the
rest of the world.
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However, before we can discuss how anime has influenced society, what exactly is
anime? To start, many people may very well have heard of at least one animated show in their
lives that is Japanese in origin. Just about every kid today has heard of Pokémon one way or
another, whether by watching the show, playing the games, or anything in this multi-billion
dollar franchise; after all, Pokémon was the first anime to break out into the mainstream
worldwide (Galbraith 187). Moreover, anime and manga (Japanese graphic novels) take up about
40 percent of the entire publication industry in Japan, which is quite impressive (Choo).
This form of popular fiction in Japan is the beginning of what is commonly known as the
“otaku” culture. For decades, they have been stereotyped to be defined as “the notoriously
obsessive fans of manga, anime, video games, and other forms of Japanese popular culture” and
who have little or no social skills, but that is a gross overstatement, which will be shown in detail
later (Tsutsui 12). As figure 1 shows (on the next page), there are many subcultures that
comprise the otaku culture as a whole, but anime is the basis from which the entire otaku culture
is based upon. Anime deserves this spot in the industry for its visual appeal, drawing viewers in,
and its philosophical themes, forcing viewers to stop and think about the world around them,
both in the anime and our own as well. Because of its great significance on society, anime is the
focus of Japanese pop culture from which everything else follows.
While anime is too complex to be summarized succinctly, just about every anime in
existence contains several key characteristics. The first apparent feature of anime is its distinctive
animation style, both how it differs from the visuals of American cartoons and how it hooks
viewers into the show. The earliest anime to appear in the United States such as Astro Boy
(Tetsuwan Atomu, 1963) started this trend, since Astro Boy was the first anime to become just as
popular as American cartoons. Astro Boy was a success in America due to character
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Figure 1 Japanese as a Foreign Language (JFL) students believe anime plays a key role in
Japanese pop culture. (Fukunaga 211)
merchandizing, emphasizing Japan’s ideal of the importance of characters and character
development in animation (Steinberg 118). Since then, more and more anime have popped up
and shown worldwide; modern shows like Pokémon, Naruto, and Dragon Ball contributed to the
Japanese influence in the media even more (Choo). In addition, with all the tons of anime out
there, anime encompasses every genre and audience demographic imaginable. Author Roland
Kelts describes the growing phenomenon:
Watch any type of anime across its many genres—giant robots, cyborg police,
intergalactic romance, samurai showdowns, school baseball, teenage alienation—
and you are welcome to fall in love with the genre of your choice, and pursue
much further [along] its long list of titles. (116)
There is something for everyone, boys and girls alike, along with numerous sub-genres that have
come about from both the anime industry and the viewers themselves. With the popularity of
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anime ever increasing, it may very well become a part of the American mainstream media in the
near future.
However, what makes anime stand out from the rest of the media is the recurrence of
deep philosophical ideas embedded within the complex plot. These ideas originate from almost
every aspect of society, but there are common ideas found in just about every single anime.
Susan J. Napier, professor of Japanese literature and culture at the University of Texas in Austin,
classifies anime under three major modes: the apocalypse, the festival, and the elegy (32). The
apocalypse is by far the most prominent mode in anime; due to the tragic events of World War II,
these apocalyptic visions in anime are a response to Japan’s postwar society and the way citizens
coped with the effects of war. Not only that, “given the enormous changes that Japan has
experienced in the century and a half since modernization, an ‘apocalyptic identity’ might be one
easily understood, perhaps even embraced, by its citizens” (250). Nevertheless, as will be
explained later, many apocalyptic anime display a sense of hope despite the bleakness these
settings contain. In contrast, the festival mode takes a lighter tone, often using comedic elements
as a means of exploring a different kind of identity, namely female identity and gender roles (31).
This “festiveness” comes from the overturning of feminine submissiveness and gender inequality
in Japan by having female characters “glory in manifestations of power still denied them in the
real world”; the same goes for men as well (31). This exploration of gender will be especially
important in understanding the social problems Japan faces today. Finally, originating from
traditional Japanese culture, the elegiac mode is perhaps the most emotional of all the modes,
dealing with sorrow through loss but also celebrating love and beauty, using elements of nature
as common symbols for these emotions (31). The elegiac mode is not as obvious as the other two
modes and is not in the forefront as often, but it is more subtle, incorporated into numerous
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anime to exemplify the themes that the other two modes provide. All three modes of anime are
not only characteristic of just about every anime in existence, but also important in the media’s
response to societal norms worldwide.
World War II has been a catalyst for many of the earliest anime, which often have
apocalyptic settings and act as reflections on the war and its effect on Japan. Astro Boy appeared
in Japan soon after the end of World War II, but two of the well-known anime films directly deal
with postwar life are Barefoot Gen (Hadashi no Gen, 1983) and Grave of the Fireflies (Hotaru
no Haka, 1988). Both films collectively define World War II from the victim’s viewpoint, in
which the films “attempt to ‘speak for history’ in a personal voice that, through the power of
vivid images of suffering, destruction, and renewal, becomes a collective voice of the Japanese
people” (Napier 217-8). Using the animation medium, apocalyptic visions, and an elegiac plot to
convey this form of visual narrative, the two films are not only representative of Japan’s sudden
losses in every aspect of society, but also the hope that Japan will rise again, illustrating the
power of anime to “convey the unconveyable” (Treat qtd. in Napier 222).
Another major effect of World War II is the formation of a subcategory of science fiction
known as the mecha genre, characterized by giant war robots each piloted by only one human in
a futuristic setting ravaged by technology and the apocalypse of war. Notable examples include
Neon Genesis Evangelion (Shin Seiki Evangerion, 1995), Ghost in the Shell (Kokaku Kidotai,
1995), and the Gundam series, but the entire mecha genre has another, more implicit role. As
society becomes increasingly technological, it also becomes increasingly oppressive against
femininity and humanism in a system of “patriarchal capitalism.” The mecha genre exemplifies
and questions the morals of our own technological progress in the digital age, balancing
femininity and the human soul with masculinity and machinery (Schaub 80).
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Recently, more and more anime pertaining to religion and the supernatural have popped
up. These kinds of anime speculate and criticize utopian views in worlds that stem from their
fantastical elements. However, they are often manipulated and portrayed in ways that, as each
show progresses, makes them more believable as a caricature of the flaws of society. Anime in
general often has a “recurrent preoccupation with the supernatural”, which also attracts viewers
to this type of animation (Sorensen). These supernatural recurrences in anime can also give rise
to powerful philosophical themes that have a relevance to society around the world.
Alchemy, for example, is a philosophical science that has been around for several
millennia, but its attempts to turn metals into gold or create the mythical Philosopher’s Stone
have failed countless times. However, what possibilities would exist if alchemy had succeeded?
What scientific laws still govern alchemy, and how will alchemy impact society? That is the
basic premise of the widely popular series, Fullmetal Alchemist (Hagane no Renkinjutsushi,
2003). The series follows two young, talented alchemists, brothers Edward and Alphonse Elric,
in a baroque-like setting ruled by alchemy. Nevertheless, this world is far from a utopia; in fact,
alchemy is riddled with flaws and chaos so that this world seems to be a step away from utopian
desires. The Elric brothers initially believed that alchemy is governed by the law of Equivalent
Exchange, stating that to create, one must sacrifice the same amount to earn it. However, that is
not always the case (see figure 2). In addition, this law can only be bypassed with the use of the
Philosopher’s Stone, which the Elric brothers seek to restore their bodies after failing to resurrect
their dead mother.
Fig. 2. The opening scene shows the Elric brothers attempting to resurrect their dead
mother, but with dire consequences; “To Challenge the Sun”; Fullmetal Alchemist;
YouTube.com, 24 June 2010; Web; 23 Jan. 2011.
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The themes in Fullmetal Alchemist, however, go beyond alchemy. D.E. Wittkower,
professor of philosophy at Coastal Carolina University, takes alchemy a step further and relates
these themes to our capitalist system:
Economics is a form of alchemy; it transforms goods into one another, and turns
productive elements into gold. It dreams too of the Philosopher’s Stone—a way of
escaping equivalent exchange and creating profit . . . How can you have a process
that ends up with more than you started with? And the answer for economics is
the same as it is in Fullmetal Alchemist: only by sacrificing human lives. (qtd. in
Steiff 205-6)
This ethical dilemma raises questions about how billions of humans can continue to survive on
Earth. How much value do the souls of the impoverished have, if any? Is it okay to kill these
people in order to not just relieve them of their suffering, but also increase the quality of the lives
of everyone else? The question of whether this type of sacrifice is morally right displays modernday alchemy—economics—at work and it is essential that we answer this question in order for
us, and everything on Earth, to survive.
Moreover, the scientific view of the world as displayed in Fullmetal Alchemist is
reminiscent of ancient Roman philosophy during the Hellenistic period, when philosophers were
divided based on two basic sets of beliefs: Epicureanism and Stoicism (Baltzly). The alchemic
world of Fullmetal Alchemist may very well be a depiction of the ideal Epicurean society. The
Epicureans, who stemmed from philosophers such as Democritus and Epicurus, believed in a
materialistic society, which alchemy tries to take advantage such as turning lead into gold
(Konstan). They also believed that pleasure can be obtained through knowledge and friendship,
as observed by the Elric brothers, who seek knowledge about the world around them and use that
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knowledge to seek the love of their dead mother (Konstan). In addition, whether they believed in
God or not, God is certainly separate from the alchemic world, as he does not try to fix the
problems that plague this society. Fullmetal Alchemist is not just about the flaws of alchemy and
the laws of nature; anime has the power to make entire sets of philosophical beliefs come to life.
So what, then, is the ideal Stoic society like? That answer is explored in a recent anime
called Angel Beats! (2010). In contrast to the Epicureans, the Stoics believed that God runs the
entire universe and that an afterlife exists for the soul (Baltzly). However, Angel Beats! tests the
limits of Stoicism by asking: is God running the afterlife as well? Instead of taking place in an
alternate reality from our own as in Fullmetal Alchemist, Angel Beats! takes place in the afterlife,
namely a high school acting as a Purgatory for all the teenage characters who suffered early and
tragic deaths. The stories of only three of the main characters, Yuri, Iwasawa, and Otonashi, are
shown in great depth, but they reveal much about themselves and the afterlife that will govern
their future. Slowly revealed as the show progresses, this interpretation of (or at least a part of)
the afterlife shows that every soul who fulfills their wishes in this afterlife are given a second
chance by being reborn in the real world. Iwasawa gets a second chance at being a musician
while Otonashi is allowed to meet with Kanade, whom he fell in love with in the afterlife. The
idea of a renewal or rebirth of the soul is still farfetched, however, even for the Stoics.
Nevertheless, this allows the idea that fate transcends both worlds, where what one does in the
real world will carry on the afterlife or vice versa. Are supernatural events occurring because of
what is happening in the afterlife (assuming there is one)? While we cannot explain the
supernatural for certain, speculating on the future (a common trait for countless anime) leaves
viewers thinking and speculating as well.
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Nevertheless, the true brilliance within this show comes from it going beyond Stoicism
by raising another question: does God even exist? A question of this magnitude does not have a
definite answer, but what the anime does point out is that no ordinary human being or soul can
“play God.” Near the end of the series, Yuri is given the opportunity to control the afterlife and
everyone in it, but she soon laughs at the idea. After all, controlling the universe and determining
the fates of countless people are too great of a responsibility for anyone to handle. However, the
question whether God exists or not remains unanswered even after the series is over, and again,
viewers decide for themselves what the truth may be. Angel Beats! is an example of Napier's
elegiac mode at its best, with the show's deeply emotional story questioning religion and the
need for God.
While fantasy and religion pervade much of the anime world, perhaps the biggest aspect
of anime concerns the depiction of gender and gender roles in society, especially in the genre of
anime known as the shojo, or anime made predominantly for a female audience. Numerous
anime, not just within the shojo genre, are set in a magical or otherworldly setting to deal with
themes of love and sexuality, whether it be towards family, a significant other, or any significant
relationship in one’s life.
Ouran High School Host Club (2006) is one of the most well known shojo anime that
explores sexuality and executes the festival mode beautifully through parody. The anime follows
Fujioka Haruhi, a tomboy who stumbles upon a host club, a group of effeminate boys who flirt
with girls for them to live out their fantasies. When Haruhi joins the host club in claiming that
she is a boy, many comedic antics ensue, even after the host club finds out her true gender.
Lacking seriousness of its own message while maintaining itself as a parody of Japanese
patriarchal society, Ouran High School Host Club is an anime that is “poking fun at the tropes
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[of homosexuality] . . . which explicitly question traditional sexualities and gender roles”
(Darlington). The characters themselves have helped make Ouran High School Host Club
achieve widespread success and popularity; certainly, the effeminate members of the host club
have a “cuteness” factor to them that draws attention to the fluidity of gender in our gendersegregated society (see figure 3).
Figure 3 Can you tell whether Haruhi (bottom right) is male or female? (Darlington)
This exploration of gender roles, unfortunately, may have also led to the rise of the otaku
and some of the negativity behind the otaku culture. Napier points out that
Negative or positive . . . the gender identity of men in contemporary Japan is as
much in flux as that of women, perhaps even more so. Japanese men today are
being forced out of traditional notions of masculine performance and presented
with a wide range of possible identities. (121)
While a high majority of the otaku fan base is male, it is important to note that, like video games,
there are still numerous female otaku out there as well thanks to shojo anime, just as there are an
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increasing number of video games targeted towards girls (Bourgon 20). These fans of the anime
genre have increasingly been viewed as having lower social skills because they may take on an
identity that is different from what is socially accepted but do not have the confidence to rebel
against the norms of society.
However, the problem is not that men are being “forced” into new identities as Napier
claims (in fact, they are allowed to choose to be whatever identity they want to be), but instead,
the problem seems to be these new identities themselves. Indeed, changing identities can be both
“exhilarating and threatening”; while the otaku are more conscious of the world around them,
they are the reasons for the “current disturbances in the social fabric” relating to gender roles
(Napier 121). However, those who believe that society is like a fabric, static and unchanging, are
naïve in the fact that “reality is really a process, undergoing constant transformation”, like a fluid
(Freire qtd. in Bartholomae 259). Not only that, gender roles are never fixed either; after all, in
ancient Greece, gender roles were the exact opposite of what they are today (Bordo qtd. in
Bartholomae 186).
So why is it that this kind of change is still shunned instead of celebrated? Several
theories have risen, but all of them deal with the current social norms plaguing Japan and the rest
of the world. The first one comes from the Miyazaki Tsutomu Incident. Starting in 1988, this
tragic event involved the late otaku Miyazaki in the rape and murder of four young girls.
Nicknamed the “Otaku Murderer,” Miyazaki was considered by the Japanese media as “the
epitome of otaku” and that other otaku will eventually follow the same path. By doing so, the
media has created another social stereotype that has already been proven false, but it wants to
incite fear on the masses anyway. However, Japan was a safe country at that time as the crime
rate was at a record low, so it makes sense that any major crimes would certainly get great
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attention in the media (Galbraith 153). In addition, psychiatrists at the University of Tokyo
concluded in 1997 that Miyazaki suffered from dissociative identity disorder and extreme
schizophrenia; even though Miyazaki was still aware of his crimes, his conditions were certainly
a factor that led to the incident. This is how criticism against the otaku fan base rose and how the
word “otaku” has taken on a negative connotation.
However, anime is not the only kind of media that is viewed in a negative light. A study
done by a professor at the University of Missouri in St. Louis shows that students tend to have
lower social expectations on others who watch anime, fantasy, and science fiction films (Hall
264). While Americans may view anime negatively like the Japanese, they also view fantasy
and, to a lesser extent, science fiction in the same way. Americans will “resist becoming too
involved in them for fear of aligning themselves with a group that would harm their social
standing” (Hall 268). If that is the case, then why are there not groups for other genres of film as
well? Except for documentaries, just about every film of every genre, animated or live-action,
involve some element of fiction to it and is meant to engage the viewer. In addition, there is a
bias in the study in that anime is a medium, which in itself encompasses just about every single
genre in existence, so it is unfair for anime to be collapsed into and viewed as one broad
category. It is clear that Americans view fantasy in general negatively and this reluctance
towards Japan and animation contributes to the negativity of the “otaku” around the world.
Another theory of why the otaku and otaku culture are viewed negatively is that otaku
behavior has risen from the oppressive educational and social system in Japan. Psychologists
argue that “[t]he social awkwardness and reclusive tendencies of otaku . . . [are] reactions
against the pressure for conformity, emphasis on the group, and elaborate standards of decorum
that characterize Japanese society” (Tsutsui 15). This “banking” education, as Brazilian educator
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Paulo Freire coins it (qtd. in Bartholomae 256), is characterized by rote memorization of
fragmented facts of reality and the oppressive authority of the teacher, and usually results in
careers in the natural sciences (257). The opposite of this is problem-posing education, in which
“student” and “teacher” learn from each other and discuss ideas about the world and society
together. Freire, who advocates for problem-posing education, claims that banking education
dehumanizes students or, as in the case of the otaku, reduces their social skills and status (259).
However, perhaps the Japanese banking education is not all bad. The 2009 Programme
for International Student Assessment reported that numerous Asian countries, including Japan,
all outscored the United States in academic and economic competitiveness (Hechinger). This
suggests that many Japanese youth, including the otaku, have better chances at higher education
than youth in the United States, even though some may tend to have these “reclusive tendencies”
as the psychologists claim. It is still unclear what contributed to Japan’s higher success rate than
America’s, whether it is banking education in Japan, anime, or a number of other factors
contributing to this issue. However, as already shown, anime encourages philosophical thought
and acts as a supplement to increase reasoning and learning ability, promoting problem-posing
education to youth in a more oppressive Japanese society.
Recently, anime has also been criticized for producing more works that are sexual, even
pornographic, in nature. Anime industry chief Ashida Toyoo claims that it is because of the
declining birth rate and population of the youth audience that the anime industry is slowly
turning to hentai, or anime pornography, to survive (Suspended). This shift towards an older
audience puts a strain on what much of the anime industry is all about, that “cuteness sells”
instead of “sex sells” (Suspended). The declining birth rate has lasted for decades, but it is
unclear whether the otaku have played a factor into this decline. Fujimura Masayuki, professor of
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sociology at Sophia University, cites two major factors in Japan that have directly contributed to
the birth rate (see table 1), the first being the value of “two children per couple” that was
established in the 1950’s (11). This occurred long before the rise of Astro Boy and anime in
general, so anime was not a factor into this cultural shift. The other factor is the increase of nonmarried people, and the possibility that “unstable employment for young males and an increase
in female workers form the background for later marriage and non-marriage” (11). It is unclear
who is to blame for this trend. However, just as men are resisting the conventional masculine
identity through anime or other means, women are increasingly deciding not to have children as
“resistance to the unfriendly social policy for them to harmonize work and family life” (Huen
365). There is no evidence to claim that the social reclusiveness of the otaku leads to an increase
in non-marriage.
Table 1 Data shows the trends in declining birth rate and aging population in Japan
(Fujimura 11)
Nevertheless, are the reclusive tendencies of the otaku really a factor towards their
declining reproduction? A Japanese live-action film called Train Man (Densha Otoko, 2005)
says otherwise. Based on a true story, the film is about a stereotypical otaku who calls himself
“Train Man” on the internet because of an incident at the beginning of the film. He saved several
women on the train by intervening when a drunken man was harassing them. After saving them,
he eventually goes on a date with one of them with the support of his online friends, who give
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him dating advice to continue the relationship and how to fit into Japanese society better, giving
hope to all the single otaku out there. However, William Tsutsui, professor of history at the
University of Kansas, claims that because of the Train Man’s shift from the otaku identity in
order to further the relationship, the film suggests that “the only way a hard-core fanatic could
win the girl was by abandoning childish hobbies, wearing more stylish clothes, and joining the
conventional majority” (16). However, this is only a response to the phobia the aforementioned
“majority” has on the otaku. Not only that, the media has had a big influence on what this
majority believes in. Tsutsui explains this impact:
Branded deviants by the media, and singled out as the latest and lowest stage in
the postwar degeneration of Japanese youth, otaku have been publicly demonized
for rejecting the collective good in favor of narrow selfish interests, refusing to
shoulder the burdens of responsible adulthood in favor of childish obsessions, and
choosing seclusion and perversion over a conventional life-course of career and
family. (17)
The media’s description of the otaku is nothing less than extreme. The Train Man has a job as a
computer programmer and thus suggests that he is in fact leading a double life, being forced to
hide his interests from the ridicule that would result from conventional society and its norms.
This “otakuphobia” that is plaguing Japan is like homophobia that is plaguing America; both the
otaku and homosexuals have to hide their true identities in order to fit into their respective
societies, but they are slowly gaining the respect they deserve and the right to be a part of the
majority. The negative image of the otaku has weakened since Train Man was released and the
“Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell Repeal Act” in December 2010 was a significant step towards gay rights
in the United States (Tsutsui 16). It seems that the majority is finally looking past the brandings
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and labels they imposed on otaku culture and is now seeing it for what it is really worth. The
otaku culture as a whole exemplifies the vast creativity anime contains, through its visual appeal
and deeply philosophical themes far greater than any other media worldwide.
For instance, American animation is still an immensely popular industry today, regardless
of the rise of anime. That is because many Americans are still dismissing anime for a number of
reasons. First is the American cultural norm that animation is for children; Americans primarily
view animation as “child’s play” rather than a form of art (Ansen 73). Many of the mainstream
American cartoons have their own conventions and clichés, which numerous viewers recognize
and believe they are required for a cartoon to be a success. As table 2 suggests, American
animation focuses on young children as its primary demographic and already plenty of censoring
by limiting what can be broadcast to children.
Table 2 Summary of the key differences in the styles of animation of the United States
and Japan (Fukunaga 213)
However, American cartoons are not the only ones to blame for this norm; many
Americans are oblivious to anime simply because it comes from Japan. For ordinary American
viewers, it is difficult “to recognize and appreciate the original visual forms and cultural
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sensibility” of anime (Choo). Many Americans would view non-mainstream anime as “weird”
because of its different visuals and its references to Japanese culture, society, and history.
The Studio Ghibli film, My Neighbor Totoro (Tonari no Totoro, 1988), is an example of
a family film that “introduces many Japanese cultural aspects and Japanese children’s
perspectives” (Fukunaga 220). Despite portraying life in rural Japan in a relaxed manner, there is
still some confusion and controversy among Americans concerning these differences in lifestyles.
In particular, there is a scene where the father bathes with his two daughters, which is one aspect
of Japanese daily life that Americans would see as strange. Some viewers choose to skip this
small scene because of this difference between Japanese and American culture (220). This shows
the reluctance in many Americans to accept, let alone understand, a foreign culture.
Localization, or censorship of foreign shows to be broadcast in another country, is the
biggest factor construing the acceptance of anime in Americans. There is already plenty of
censoring in American cartoons, but American companies are also censoring anime that is
imported into the United States. Usually, animation companies just change the voices and audio
into English for Americans to view (also known as the “dubbed” versions of anime). However,
sometimes there is censorship in anime in its visuals or other aspects in an attempt to make it
more appealing to the American audience. Characters’ names are Americanized; characters can
change ethnicity; some characters even get “sex change operations” to avoid homosexual
relationships; these are only some of the numerous ways to censor anime in the United States
(Sorensen). Censorship is a cause of the American market being “less tolerant of ‘alien’ cultural
products, and almost all foreign cultural products must be adapted and altered to suit to local
tastes” (Lunning 37). Reasons for these censors range from the purely visual to the removal of
material that is considered obscene in the United States, such as homosexuality. In addition, by
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censoring the content of anime, the story and philosophical themes in them can be obscured as
well, reducing their educational value as well as entertainment value, whereas American
animation has very little educational value in the first place because of the immense amounts of
censorship already taking place.
4Kids is one such American company that is infamous for their censorship of numerous
anime, editing anime so that it could be marketed towards American children. The problem is
that due to the cultural divide between Japan and the United States, they have different views on
what is appropriate for their own children. The Japanese are more lenient in their content, so
4Kids censors even Pokémon to localize anime in the United States. Some of the most notable
scenes include those where a stranger points a gun at the main character, Ash, and James, a
recurring antagonist in the series, once put on fake breasts to mock the female lead, Misty. This
illustrates the reluctance of Americans to stray outside of their comfort zone in their media.
Censorship is only the beginning of 4Kids’ reputation. 4Kids has been highly criticized
for obtaining licenses of and localizing anime that was not originally aimed for children, such as
One Piece (1999). To add insult to injury, companies like 4Kids are making the most money in
the animation business, not the Japanese creators. Kubo Masakazu, executive producer at
Shogakukan, the Japanese publisher that popularized Pokémon, expresses his irritation:
Usually, when you think about licensing, you’d think the person who created the
original story would make the most money. But American business is designed so
that people at the end, the mass retailers, make the most. Like Wal-Mart.
Anything Wal-Mart says, the toy makers do. And they do it for nothing. (Kelts
190)
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It is shocking to see that the ones who created the shows we see today do not get the money they
truly deserve. Kubo did not realize this was happening until recently when one of their most
successful Pokémon movies “unexpectedly” did not earn them higher profits:
[The creators] knew that there was money coming in, and at the time—partly
because of their pride in seeing the Pokémon movie Mew2 Strikes Back become
Japan’s biggest box-office success in America—they were satisfied. Until they
learned how much money should have been coming in. (Kelts 190)
However, even with the small profits, the movie itself shows that there is potential for anime to
grow, as it is “a core competence of Japan that can successfully be globalized” (Kelts 197).
American cartoons, however, do not take advantage of the animated medium, making it just a
form of mindless entertainment. While South Park is a notable exception to American norms,
using satire to communicate its philosophical themes, American animation in general lacks the
quantity and quality of shows in terms of its plot and themes as opposed to those in amine. For
every quality American show that airs, there seem to be much more popular American cartoons
that drown out the few good shows and reinforce the stereotype that animation is for children.
That is one reason why more Americans are turning to anime for entertainment and inspiration;
no other form of media can even begin to compare to the beauty of anime and its content making
a significant impact on the world.
All of these findings suggest that anime has had a beneficial influence in society rather
than a harmful one, and will continue to do so across the globe. Tsutsui summarizes the otaku
culture’s impact:
Otaku, in many ways, seem to have symbolized the fragmentation, drift,
dissatisfaction, and withdrawal characteristic of Japanese society as a whole . . .
Ly 21
But approaching otaku culture simply as a social pathology is to overlook its
obvious creativity, dynamism, and spirit of resistance to mainstream social mores.
The otaku lifestyle—wired, networked, information-driven, flexible, imaginative,
narcissistic, and playful—may very well prove the prototype for twenty-firstcentury youth cultures around the world. (17-8)
Ever since World War II, both Japan and the United States have undergone major changes in
society. For the Japanese people, anime is a wake-up call and a response to the flaws of Japan’s
oppressive society. The same can be said for Americans: “Americans who consume anime values
are also responding to—and perhaps attempting to escape—the hypersexuality of their own
media culture by reimagining romance as a relationship that goes beyond the purely sexual”
(Newitz qtd. in Napier 212). For Americans, it is an escape from their mainstream media,
whether from the flaws of American animation or from the purely sexual values of pop and hiphop music. If there is a formal definition for anime, Napier puts it nicely:
Japanese animation merits serious consideration as a narrative art form, and not
simply for its arresting visual style. Anime is a medium in which distinctive visual
elements combine with an array of generic, thematic, and philosophical structures
to produce a unique aesthetic world. Often this world is more provocative . . . and
contains far more complicated story lines than would be the case in equivalent
American popular cultural offerings. (10)
Anime is more than just an escape from the majority; it provides an outlet from which the
minority can express themselves through this art form. In the future, anime may even grow to
become part of the mainstream media itself. The entire world is starting to see the media,
especially animation, as art, and that is for the better. With the rising popularity and appraisal
Ly 22
anime has received, Japan has been and will be the cultural center of the world, and America will
soon follow their example.
Ly 23
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