C
HAPTER 18
Introduction to Systems
Development and Systems
Analysis
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INTRODUCTION
• Questions to be addressed in this chapter
include:
– What are the phases in the systems development
life cycle?
– Who are the individuals involved in systems
development?
– What techniques are used to plan the development
of a system?
– How do you determine whether a particular system
is feasible?
– How do people respond to systems changes, and
how can dysfunctional behavior be minimized?
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INTRODUCTION
• As the environment, technology, and
competition change, an information
system must continually undergo changes.
• These changes range from minor
adjustments to major overhauls.
• Occasionally, the old system is scrapped
and replaced.
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INTRODUCTION
• Companies change their systems for a variety of
reasons:
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–
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–
–
–
–
To respond to changes in user needs or business needs.
To take advantage of or respond to technology changes.
To accommodate improvements in their business process.
To gain a competitive advantage and/or lower costs.
To increase productivity.
To accommodate growth.
To accommodate downsizing or distribute decision making
To integrate incompatible systems.
To replace a system that is aged and unstable.
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INTRODUCTION
• Developing quality, error-free software is difficult,
expensive, and time-consuming.
• Projects tend to deliver less than expected and consume
more time and money.
• A KPMG survey found that 35% of all major information
systems projects were classified as runaways—
hopelessly incomplete and over budget.
– Major cause of runaways: Skimping on systems development
processes.
• Omitting basic systems development steps becomes
tempting but may lead to disaster as developers create
well-structured systems that fail to meet user needs or
solve business problems.
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INTRODUCTION
• This chapter discusses five topics:
– Systems development life cycle
– Planning activities during the systems
development life cycle
– Feasibility analysis
– Behavioral aspects of change
– Systems analysis
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• Whether systems changes are major or
minor, most companies go through a
systems development life cycle.
• In this section, we discuss the steps in the
cycle and the people involved.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• The five stages in the systems
development life cycle are:
– Systems analysis
– Conceptual design
– Physical design
– Implementation and conversion
– Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• The five stages in the systems
development life cycle are:
– Systems analysis
– Conceptual design
– Physical design
– Implementation and conversion
– Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• As organizations grow and change, they may
need more or better information.
• Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:
– Initial investigation
 Involves gathering the information needed
to buy or develop a new system and
determining whether it is a priority.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• As organizations grow and change, they may
need more or better information.
• Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:
– Initial investigation
– Systems survey
 If the system is a priority, survey the
existing system to define the nature and
scope of the project and identify the
strengths and weaknesses of the system.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• As organizations grow and change, they may
need more or better information.
• Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:
– Initial investigation
– Systems survey
– Feasibility study
 Involves an in-depth study of the proposed
system to determine whether it’s feasible.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• As organizations grow and change, they may
need more or better information.
• Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:
–
–
–
–
Initial investigation
Systems survey
Feasibility study
Determination of information needs and system
requirements
 Involves finding out and documenting what
users and management need.
 This is the most important aspect of
systems analysis.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• As organizations grow and change, they may
need more or better information.
• Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:
–
–
–
–
Initial investigation
Systems survey Involves preparation of a report
Feasibility study summarizing the systems analysis work.
 information
This report isneeds
submitted
the information
Determination of
and to
system
systems steering committee.
requirements
– Delivery of systems requirements
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• The five stages in the systems
development life cycle are:
– Systems analysis
– Conceptual design
– Physical design
– Implementation and conversion
– Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• In the conceptual design phase, the company
decides how to meet user needs.
• Tasks in this phase include:
– Identify and evaluate design alternatives
 Possibilities include:
 Buying software
 Developing in-house
 Outsourcing
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• In the conceptual design phase, the company
decides how to meet user needs.
• Tasks in this phase include:
– Identify and evaluate design alternatives
– Develop design specifications
 Involves writing up details of what the system is to
accomplish and how it is to be controlled and
developed.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• In the conceptual design phase, the company
decides how to meet user needs.
• Tasks in this phase include:
– Identify and evaluate design alternatives
– Develop design specifications
– Deliver conceptual design requirements
 These requirements will be forwarded to the
information systems steering committee.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• The five stages in the systems
development life cycle are:
– Systems analysis
– Conceptual design
– Physical design
– Implementation and conversion
– Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• In the physical design phase, the broad, useroriented requirements of the conceptual design
are translated into detailed specifications that
can be used by programmers to code the
programs.
• Tasks include:
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–
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–
–
Design outputs, database, and inputs
Develop programs
Develop procedures
Design controls
Deliver developed system
• Goes to information systems steering committee
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• The five stages in the systems
development life cycle are:
– Systems analysis
– Conceptual design
– Physical design
– Implementation and conversion
– Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• This is the capstone phase during which everything
comes together.
• Tasks include:
– Develop an implementation and conversion plan.
• Needed because of the complexity and importance of this phase.
– Install any new hardware and software.
– Train personnel.
• New employees may need to be hired and trained or existing
employees relocated.
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–
–
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Test the system and make any needed modifications.
Complete the documentation.
Convert from the old to the new system.
Deliver operational system.
• Send the final report to the IS steering committee.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• The five stages in the systems
development life cycle are:
– Systems analysis
– Conceptual design
– Physical design
– Implementation and conversion
– Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• Once the system is up and running, operations
and monitoring continue.
• Tasks include:
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–
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Fine-tune and do post-implementation review.
Operate the system.
Periodically, review and modify the system.
Do ongoing maintenance.
Deliver improved system.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
• Eventually, a major modification or system
replacement is necessary, and the systems
development life cycle (SDLC) will start over.
• In addition to the preceding five phases, three
activities are performed throughout the life cycle:
– Planning.
– Managing behavioral reactions to change.
– Assessing ongoing feasibility.
• These three activities will be discussed in this
chapter.
 Additionally, the first phase in the SDLC, systems
analysis, will be discussed in more detail.
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THE PLAYERS
 Many people are involved in developing and
successfully implementing an AIS, including:







Top management
Accountants
The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers
External players
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THE PLAYERS
 Many people are involved in developing and
successfully implement an AIS, including:







Top management
Accountants
The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers
External players
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THE PLAYERS
• Top management’s role in systems development
is to:
– Provide support and encouragement a clear signal
that user involvement is important.
– Help align the systems with corporate strategies.
– Establish system goals and objectives.
– Review IS department performance and leadership.
– Establish policies for project selection and
organizational structure.
– Participate in important systems decisions.
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THE PLAYERS
• User management needs to:
– Determine information requirements for departmental
projects.
– Assist systems analysts with project cost-benefit
estimates.
– Assign key staff members to development projects.
– Allocate funds.
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THE PLAYERS
 Many people are involved in developing and
successfully implement an AIS, including:







Top management
Accountants
The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers
External players
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THE PLAYERS
• Accountants also play an important role in
systems development:
– As AIS users, they must determine their information needs
and systems requirements and communicate them to
system developers.
– As members of project development teams or steering
committees, they help management in the development
process.
– They are also active in:
• Designing system controls and monitoring and testing these
controls.
• Ensuring the system is easy to audit.
– Controls and “auditability” need to be built in early to
minimize costs and inefficiencies later.
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THE PLAYERS
 Many people are involved in developing and
successfully implement an AIS, including:







Top management
Accountants
The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers
External players
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THE PLAYERS
• The information systems steering committee is
an executive-level committee whose duty is to
plan and oversee the IS function.
– Consists of high level management, such as:
• Controller
• IS Manager
• User department managers
– Sets policies to govern the AIS and assure topmanagement participation, guidance, and control.
– Attempts to encourage goal congruence and reduce
goal conflict.
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THE PLAYERS
 Many people are involved in developing and
successfully implement an AIS, including:







Top management
Accountants
The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers
External players
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THE PLAYERS
• The project development team includes systems
specialists, managers, accountants, auditors, and users
whose responsibility is to guide development.
• Their job:
–
–
–
–
Plan each project.
Monitor to ensure timely and cost-effective completion.
Ensure the human element is considered.
Communicate project status to top management and steering
committee.
– Communicate and meet with users to:
• Consider ideas
• Discuss progress
• Eliminate surprises
– The team approach produces more effective results and better
user acceptance.
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THE PLAYERS
 Many people are involved in developing and
successfully implement an AIS, including:







Top management
Accountants
The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers
External players
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THE PLAYERS
• Systems analysts study existing systems,
design new ones, and prepare
specifications that are used by
programmers.
– They interact with technical personnel and
users to bridge the gap.
– They are responsible for ensuring the system
meets user needs.
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THE PLAYERS
 Many people are involved in developing and
successfully implement an AIS, including:







Top management
Accountants
The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers
External players
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THE PLAYERS
• Computer programmers write the
computer programs, using the specs
developed by the systems analysts.
• They also modify and maintaining existing
programs.
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THE PLAYERS
 Many people are involved in developing and
successfully implement an AIS, including:







Top management
Accountants
The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers
External players
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THE PLAYERS
• External players include:
– Customers
– Vendors
– Auditors
– Governmental entities
• Their needs must also be met in systems
development.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• Several activities must be performed at various
times throughout the SDLC.
• One of these activities is planning.
• The organization should have plans for:
– The long range.
– Each systems development project.
– Each phase of each systems development project.
• We’ll discuss these plans and a number of
techniques to develop them.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• We’ve all experienced the disasters that occur when we
fail to plan.
• When you got it home, you realized it wasn’t compatible
with your existing printer and scanner.
• Furthermore, it wasn’t equipped for broadband Internet
access and you had been hoping to switch to
broadband.
• By the time you spend the money and buy the parts to
equip the computer to do what you want it to do, you find
that you could have bought a leading-edge computer for
less money.
• Suppose you bought a personal computer on impulse
without thinking about what you wanted to do with it.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• Systems development planning is an important
step for the following key reasons:
– Consistency with the organization’s strategic plan.
– Efficiency achieved through coordination of the
subsystems.
– Cutting edge technology and techniques.
– Lower costs due to lack of duplication, wasted effort,
time overruns, and cost overruns.
– Adaptability for future changes.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
 When a system is poorly planned, a company
must often return to a prior phase and correct
errors and design flaws.
 These returns are costly and result in delays,
frustration, and low morale.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
 Two types of systems development plans
are needed:
- Individual project plans developed by the
project teams.
- A master plan developed by the IS steering
committee.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
 Two types of systems development plans
are needed:
- Individual project plans developed by the
project teams.
- A master plan developed by the IS steering
committee.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• Individual project plans contain:
– A cost-benefit analysis.
– Developmental and operational requirements,
including:
•
•
•
•
Human resources
Hardware
Software
Financial resources
– A schedule of activities to develop and operate the
new application.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
 Two types of systems development plans
are needed:
- Individual project plans developed by the
project teams.
- A master plan developed by the IS steering
committee.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• A master plan specifies:
–
–
–
–
–
What the system will consist of
How it will be developed.
Who will develop it.
How needed resources will be acquired.
Where the AIS is headed.
• It also provides:
– Status of projects in process.
– Prioritization of planned projects and criteria for
establishing priorities.
– Timetables for development.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• Projects with highest priority are first to be
developed.
– These decisions are made by top management.
• Planning horizon:
– About a 3-year horizon.
– With updates at least 2–3 times/year—even more
frequently in some companies.
• The CIO should determine:
– How soon technologies will be in wide use.
– Whether the company should adopt late or early.
– What business opportunities might arise from new
technologies.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• Planning techniques
– Two techniques for scheduling and
monitoring systems development
activities are:
• Program Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT)
• Gantt Charts
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• Planning techniques
– Two techniques for scheduling and
monitor systems development activities
are:
• Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT)
• Gantt Charts
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• A PERT diagram requires that all activities
in a project be identified along with the
activities that precede and follow them.
• These activities are used to draw a PERT
diagram, which consists of a network of:
– Arrows—representing activities that require
time and resources.
– Nodes—representing completion and initiation
of activities.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• The critical path in a PERT diagram is the
path requiring the greatest amount of time.
• If an activity on the critical path is delayed,
the whole project is delayed.
• Resources may be shifted to the critical
path to reduce the delay.
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• SAMPLE PERT CHART
– For building and selling a birdhouse.
– Each block contains a task and a time estimate (may
include best time, worst time, and average time).
– May indicate who will be responsible for the task.
Buy Wood
& Nails
(1)
(Bill)
Build
Base
(2)
(Bill)
Nail
Together
(2)
(Bill)
Design
Birdhouse
(2)
(Bill)
Buy
Paint
(1)
(Sara)
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Paint &
Decorate
(3)
(Sara)
Sell
(2)
(Sara)
Build
Roof
(1)
(Bill)
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• Planning techniques
– Two techniques for scheduling and
monitor systems development activities
are:
• Program Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT)
• Gantt Charts
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
• A Gantt chart is a bar chart with project activities
on the left and time across the top.
• For each activity, a bar of expected time is
drawn.
• As activities are completed, the bar is filled in.
• The Gantt chart makes it easy to eyeball the
chart and understand the current status of a
project.
• But the chart does not show the relationship
between activities like the PERT chart does.
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SAMPLE GANTT CHART
Complete
Testing
In Development
Milestone
1
2
3
4
Period
5
6
7
8
9
10
Design birdhouse
Buy wood & nails
Buy paint
Build roof
Build base
Nail together
Paint & decorate
Sell
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• During the systems analysis phase, a feasibility
study (aka, a business case) is prepared and is
updated during the remaining steps in the
SDLC.
• The extent of the feasibility study depends on
the size and nature of the system.
• Feasibility team should include:
–
–
–
–
Management
Accountants skilled in controls and auditing
Systems personnel
Users
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• The feasibility study and its updates are
used by the steering committee as the
project proceeds to decide whether to:
– Terminate the project
– Proceed
– Proceed if specific problems are resolved
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• Five aspects need to be considered during a
feasibility study:
– Technical feasibility
• Is the technology there to do it?
– Operational feasibility
• Do we have people who can do it, and will it get used?
– Legal feasibility
• Does it comply with legal, regulatory, and contractual
obligations?
– Scheduling feasibility
• Can it be done in time?
– Economic feasibility
• Will the benefits exceed the costs?
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• Calculating economic feasibility costs and
benefits
– Economic feasibility is probably the most important
and frequently analyzed aspect.
– This examination requires a careful investigation of
costs and benefits.
– It typically uses a capital budgeting model that
considers:
•
•
•
•
Cost savings and other benefits
Initial outlay costs
Operating costs
Other costs
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• When possible, benefits and costs should
be estimated and included even if they are
not easily quantifiable.
• If some costs and benefits cannot be
accurately estimated, they should at least
be listed, along with the likelihood of their
occurrence and their expected impact.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• Benefits might include:
– Cost savings.
– Improved customer service, productivity,
decision making, or data processing.
– Better management control.
– Increased job satisfaction and employee
morale.
• A rigorous cost-benefit analysis is a good strategy for
ensuring the benefit of new information technology
exceeds the cost.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• Costs might include:
– Equipment costs
• Initial outlay plus ongoing operating costs.
– Software costs
• Costs of acquiring, maintaining, supporting, and operating.
– Human resource costs
• Salaries, as well as costs of hiring, training, and relocating staff.
–
–
–
–
–
Site preparation costs.
Installation and conversion costs.
Supplies.
Overhead.
Financial charges.
• The primary operating cost is maintaining the system.
• Makes up 65–75% of the organization’s system efforts.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• Capital budgeting
– Most organizations use a capital budgeting
return on investment technique to evaluate
the economic merits of different system
alternatives.
– There are three commonly used techniques:
• Payback period
• Calculates the number of years before the new savings
from the project equal the initial cost of the investment.
• Select projects with shorter payback periods.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• Capital Budgeting
– Most organizations use a capital budgeting
return on investment technique to evaluate
the economic merits of different system
alternatives.
– There are three commonly used techniques:
• Payback period
• Net present value (NPV)
• Calculates and sums the discounted future cash flows
of the costs and benefits.
• Select projects with higher positive NPV.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• Capital Budgeting
– Most organizations use a capital budgeting
return on investment technique to evaluate
the economic merits of different system
alternatives.
– There
are three
commonly
used
• Calculates
the effective
interest
rate techniques:
that would result in
•
•
•
a net present
Payback
periodvalue of zero for the project.
•Net
Select
projects
with
higher IRRs.
present
value
(NPV)
Internal rate of return (IRR)
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• The best system will fail without the
support of the people it serves.
• So the behavioral aspects of change are
crucial.
• You need to be aware of and sensitive to
the types of behavioral problems that can
result from change.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• Why behavioral problems occur
– Employees will tend to view change as good if
they believe it will affect them positively and
vice versa.
• The Department of Defense with 3.3 million employees
has faced tremendous resistance to change in the
course of over 20 years of system integration attempts.
• A more transparent system would likely expose
personal agendas and a “project protection” mindset.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,
it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
– Personal characteristics and background
• Employees are more likely to accept change if they are:
– Young;
– Highly educated; or
– Comfortable with technology.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,
it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
– Personal characteristics and background
– Manner in which change is introduced
• The rationale used to sell the system may need to vary
with the job responsibilities of the employees involved.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,
it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
– Personal characteristics and background
– Manner in which change is introduced
– Experience with prior changes
• Fool me once, shame on me . . .
• Let’s see if I even give you a
second chance.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,
it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
– Personal characteristics and background
– Manner in which change is introduced
– Experience with prior changes
– Top management support
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,
it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
– Personal characteristics and background
– Manner in which change is introduced
– Experience with prior changes
– Top management support
– Communication
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,
it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
– Personal characteristics and background
– Manner in which change is introduced
– Experience with prior
changes
• Employees may be too
– Top management support
emotionally attached to their
duties, i.e., “sacred cows.”
– Communication
– Biases and natural resistance to change
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,
it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
– Personal characteristics and background
– Manner in which change is introduced
– Experience with prior changes
– Top management support
– Communication
• Disturbances often create
negative feelings.
– Biases and natural resistance
to change
– Disruptive nature of the change process
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,
it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
– Personal characteristics and background
– Manner in which change is introduced
– Experience with prior changes
• May include
fear of:
– Top management
support
– The unknown
– Communication
Failure resistance to change
– Biases and –natural
– Technology
– Disruptive nature
of the change process
– Losing respect or status
– Fear
– Losing their jobs
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• How people resist AIS changes
– Resistance to change often takes one of
three forms:
• Aggression
• Behavior intended to destroy, cripple, or weaken the
system’s effectiveness.
• Examples: Increased error rates, disruptions, or
deliberate sabotage.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• How people resist AIS changes
– Resistance to change often takes one of
three forms:
• Aggression
• Projection
• Blaming the new system for any and every unpleasant
occurrence, i.e., the system becomes a scapegoat.
• To preserve the integrity of the system, these criticisms
must be controlled or answered.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
• How people resist AIS changes
– Resistance to change often takes one of
three forms:
• Aggression
• Projection
• Avoidance
• “If I don’t use this thing, maybe it will go away!”
• At Davis Controls, the CEO eventually had to
terminate employees who avoided using a new
information system.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• Reactions to change can be improved by
observing the following guidelines:
– Meet user’s needs with respect to the form,
content, and volume of system output.
– Keep communication lines open. Managers
and users should be fully informed about:
•
•
•
•
What changes are being made
Why
How it will benefit them
Who to contact with questions
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
– Maintain a safe and open atmosphere.
• If employees become hostile, it’s an uphill battle
you probably won’t win.
– Obtain management support.
– Allay fears.
• To the extent possible, reassure employees that no
major job losses or responsibility shifts will occur.
• If employees are terminated, severance pay and
outplacement services should be provided.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
– Solicit user participation.
• It is ego enhancing, challenging, and intrinsically
satisfying.
• Users who participate will be more committed to
using the system.
– Provide honest feedback.
• Explain which suggestions are and are not being
used and why.
– Make sure users understand the system.
• Don’t underestimate training needs.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
– Humanize the system.
• Employees shouldn’t feel the computer is
controlling them or has usurped their positions.
– Describe new challenges and opportunities.
• The system can provide greater job satisfaction
and increased opportunities.
– Reexamine performance evaluation.
• Are performance standards and criteria realistic in
light of the change?
– Test the system’s integrity.
• It’ important to minimize bad impressions
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
– Avoid emotionalism.
• Emotional issues should be allowed to cool, handled in
a non-confrontational manner, or sidestepped.
– Present the system in the proper context.
• Address the concerns of the people to whom you’re
speaking, not the concerns of management or
developers.
– Control the user’s expectations.
• Don’t oversell, and be realistic.
– Keep the system simple.
• Avoid complex systems that cause radical changes.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
 Ignoring the preceding steps can leave to
behavior issues that are difficult or
impossible to reverse.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• When a new or improved system is
needed, a written request for systems
development is prepared. That request
describes:
– The current system’s problems.
– The reasons for the proposed changes.
– The goals and objectives of a proposed
system.
– The anticipated benefits and costs.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• The project development team will conduct
the systems analysis in five steps:
– Initial investigation
– Systems survey
– Feasibility study
– Information needs and systems requirements
– Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• The project development team will conduct
the systems analysis in five steps
– Initial investigation
– Systems survey
– Feasibility study
– Information needs and systems requirements
– Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• The initial investigation is conducted to:
– Gain a clear picture of the problem or
need.
• Sometimes what is thought to be the cause of the
problem is not the real source.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• The initial investigation is conducted to:
– Gain a clear picture of the problem or need.
– Determine the viability of the project and
expected costs and payoffs.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• A new AIS is useful when problems are a result of:
– Lack of information
– Inaccessibility of data
– Inefficient data processing
• The initial investigation is conducted to:
• A
AISpicture
will not answer
such
– Gain
a new
clear
of theproblems
problem
oras:
need.
– A manager who has too many subordinates
– Determine
the viability of the project and
– A manager who lacks organizational skills
expected
costs
and payoffs.
– Failure
to enforce
existing problems
– Evaluate the scope and nature of the new
AIS.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• The initial investigation is conducted to:
– Gain a clear picture of the problem or need.
– Determine the viability of the project and
• Either:
expected costs and
payoffs.
– Initiate the project as proposed.
– Evaluate the scope and
nature
of the new
– Modify
it.
– Abandon it.
AIS.
– Recommend whether to proceed.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• If the project is approved:
– A proposal to conduct systems analysis is
prepared.
– The project is assigned a priority and added
to the master plan.
– The development team begins a survey of the
existing AIS.
– The proposal will be modified as more
information becomes available.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• The project development team will conduct
the systems analysis in five steps
– Initial investigation
– Systems survey
– Feasibility study
– Information needs and systems requirements
– Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• A systems survey involves an extensive study of the
current AIS which could take weeks or months.
Objectives are:
– Gain a thorough understanding of:
• Company operations, policies, and procedures.
• Data and information flow.
• AIS strengths and weaknesses.
• Available hardware, software, and personnel.
– Make preliminary assessments of current and future
processing needs, and determine extent and nature of
needed changes.
– Develop working relationships with users and build support.
– Collect data that identify user needs, conduct a feasibility
analysis, and make recommendations to management.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Data can be gathered from:
– Employees.
– Documentation such as organization charts
and procedure manuals.
– External sources such as:
•
•
•
•
•
Consultants
Customers
Suppliers
Industry associations
Government agencies
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Four common methods of gathering data
are:
– Interviews
– Questionnaires
– Observation
– System documentation
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Four common methods of gathering data
are:
– Interviews
– Questionnaires
– Observation
– System documentation
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Advantages of interviews:
– Can answer “why” questions.
– Can allow for follow-up and clarification.
– Provides opportunity to build positive relationships
with interviewees and support for new system.
• Disadvantages of interviews:
– Time-consuming.
– Expensive.
– Personal biases or self-interest may produce
inaccurate information.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• When you do interviews:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Make an appointment.
Explain the purpose ahead of time.
Indicate the amount of time needed.
Be on time.
Be familiar with the interviewee’s responsibilities.
Make notes on points to cover.
Put the interviewee at ease and let him/her do the
talking.
– Pay attention to nonverbal cues.
– Take notes and augment them with impressions after
the interview.
– Request permission to tape critical interviews.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Four common methods of gathering data
are:
– Interviews
– Questionnaires
– Observation
– System documentation
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Questionnaires can be used when:
– The amount of information to be gathered is
small and well defined.
– The information is to be obtained from many
people or from those who are remotely
located.
– The information is intended to verify data from
other sources.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Advantages of questionnaires:
–
–
–
–
Can be anonymous.
Not time-consuming to complete.
Inexpensive.
Allows the subject time to think about responses.
• Disadvantages of questionnaires:
–
–
–
–
–
Does not allow in-depth questions or answers.
Does not allow follow-up or clarification.
Does not build relationships.
Difficult to develop.
May be ignored or completed superficially.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Four common methods of gathering data
are:
– Interviews
– Questionnaires
– Observation
– System documentation
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Advantages of observations:
– Can verify how the system actually works
rather than how it should work.
– Results in greater understanding of systems.
• Disadvantages of observations:
– Time-consuming.
– Expensive.
– Difficult to interpret.
– People may alter behavior while being
observed.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• When you do observations:
– Identify what is to be observed and estimate
the time required.
– Obtain permission.
– Explain what will be done and why.
– Don’t make value judgments.
– Take notes and document impressions ASAP.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Four common methods of gathering data
are:
– Interviews
– Questionnaires
– Observation
– System documentation
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Advantages of systems documentation:
– Describes how the system should work.
– Written form facilitates review and analysis.
• Disadvantages of systems documentation:
– Time consuming.
– May be elusive.
• When you examine systems documentation:
– Keep in mind that the system doesn’t always work as
it should per the documentation.
– If documentation is unavailable, it may be worthwhile
to develop it.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Once the data is gathered, document
findings and model the existing system.
– Documentation consists of:
• Questionnaire copies
• Interview notes
• Memos
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Another form of documentation is a
system model:
– Physical models illustrate how a system
functions by describing:
• Flow of documents.
• Computer processes performed and the people
doing them.
• Equipment used.
• Any other physical elements.
– Logical models illustrate what is being done
regardless of how the flow is accomplished.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• When documentation is complete, analyze
the existing system:
– Evaluate the AIS’s strengths and weaknesses
to develop ideas for designing and structuring
the new AIS.
• Try to retain strengths.
• Correct weaknesses.
– Sometimes, you need revolutionary, rather
than evolutionary change.
• Called reengineering.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• At the end of this phase, prepare systems
survey report:
– Outlines and documents the data gathered.
– Provides recommendations that result from
the systems survey.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• The project development team will conduct
the systems analysis in five steps:
– Initial investigation
– Systems survey
– Feasibility study
– Information needs and systems requirements
– Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• After the systems survey, a more thorough
feasibility analysis is conducted.
• This analysis is updated regularly as the
project proceeds and costs and benefits
become clearer.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• The project development team will conduct
the systems analysis in five steps:
– Initial investigation
– Systems survey
– Feasibility study
– Information needs and systems
requirements
– Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
 Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company
identifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
- Processes
• Describes what is to be done
and by whom.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
 Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company
identifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
- Processes
- Data elements
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• Describes name, size, format,
source, and significance of
necessary data elements.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
 Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company
identifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
- Processes
- Data elements
- Data structure
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• A preliminary structure showing
how the data elements will be
organized into logical records.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
 Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company
identifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
-
Processes
Data elements
Data structure
Outputs • Layouts of system outputs and a
description of their purpose,
frequency, and distribution.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
 Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company
identifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
-
Processes
Data elements
Data structure
Outputs
Inputs • A copy of system inputs and a
description of their contents,
source, and who is responsible
for them.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
 Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company
identifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
-
Processes
Data elements
Data structure
Outputs
• A description of deadlines,
Inputs
schedules, security requirements,
Constraints
staffing limitations, and legal
requirements.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
 Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company
identifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
-
Processes
Data elements
Data structure
Outputs
Inputs
Constraints
Controls • Controls that are needed to
ensure accuracy and reliability.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
 Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company
identifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
-
Processes
Data elements
Data structure
Outputs
Inputs
Documentation constraints
Controls
• Changes in staffing, job
Reorganizations
functions, etc., that would be
necessary.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Issues:
– There is much to be specified, even for a
simple AIS.
– It may be difficult to get employees to
accurately articulate their needs.
– Errors are best caught early, as the cost to
correct them increases significantly the farther
you are into the project.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives and constraints
– Many entities take a systems approach to
determining information needs and systems
requirements.
– Problems and alternatives are viewed from
the standpoint of the entire organization—as
opposed to a single department.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
• Able to help users make
decisions.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
- Economy
• Benefits exceed costs.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
- Economy
- Reliability
• Data is processed accurately
and reliably.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
-
Usefulness
Economy
Reliability
Availability
• You can access it when you
need it.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
-
Usefulness
Economy
Reliability
Availability
Timeliness
• More critical information is
provided first.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
-
Usefulness
Economy
Reliability
Availability
Timeliness
Customer service
• Efficient and courteous.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
-
Usefulness
Economy
Reliability
Availability
Timeliness
Customer service
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- Capacity
• Can handle peak periods.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
-
Usefulness
Economy
Reliability
Availability
Timeliness
Customer service
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- Capacity
- Ease of use
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
-
Usefulness
Economy
Reliability
Availability
Timeliness
Customer service
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- Capacity
- Ease of use
- Flexibility
• Can accommodate changes.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
-
Usefulness
Economy
Reliability
Availability
Timeliness
Customer service
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-
Capacity
Ease of use
Flexibility
Tractability
• Easily understood.
• Facilitates problem solving and
future development.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
-
Usefulness
Economy
Reliability
Availability
Timeliness
Customer service
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-
Capacity
Ease of use
Flexibility
Tractability
Auditability
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Systems objectives must be identified, so
analysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
-
Usefulness
Economy
Reliability
Availability
Timeliness
Customer service
-
Capacity
Ease of use
Flexibility
Tractability
Auditability
Security • Available only to
authorized users.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• There are often trade-offs between objectives.
• Organizational constraints make it impossible to
develop all parts of an AIS simultaneously.
– You divide it into modules that are analyzed,
developed, and installed independently.
– When changes are made, only the affected modules
need to be changed.
– The modules should be properly integrated into a
workable system.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Success often depends on the project
team’s ability to cope with organizational
constraints, including:
– Requirements of governmental agencies.
– Managerial policies and guidelines.
– Lack of sufficient, qualified staff.
– Capabilities and attitudes of users.
– Available technology.
– Limited financial resources.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Strategies for determining
requirements:
– One or more of the following four strategies
are used to determine AIS requirements:
• Ask users what they need
• This is the simplest and fastest strategy.
• But many people don’t realize or understand their true
needs.
• It’s sometimes better to ask them what decisions they
make and what processes they are involved in.
• Users also need to think beyond their current
information needs.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Strategies for determining
requirements:
– One or more of the following four strategies
are used to determine AIS requirements:
• Ask users what they need
• Analyze existing systems
 Internal and external systems should be analyzed to
avoid reinventing the wheel.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Strategies for Determining
Requirements:
• Certain modules:
May not be used as intended
– One or –more
of the following four strategies
– May be augmented by manual tasks
are used
to determine
AIS requirements:
– May
be avoided altogether
• Ask
what theywhether
need the system really needs to be
• users
Helps determine
simply modified rather than replaced.
• Analyze
existing systems
• Examine existing system use
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Strategies for Determining
Requirements:
– One or more of the following four strategies
• Entails
roughing out AIS
a system
for users to critique.
are used
to determine
requirements:
•
•
•
•
• When they see something on a screen, it’s easier to
Ask
users what they need
identify what they like and don’t like.
Analyze
• Goesexisting
throughsystems
iterations of improving and reviewing
with users
untilsystem
users agree
Examine
existing
use on their needs.
Create a prototype
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Documentation and approval of user
requirements:
– Detailed requirements for the new AIS should
be created and documented.
• How to produce the required features is
determined during the design phases of the SDLC.
• The requirements list should be supported by
sample input and output forms and charts that
make it easier to conceptualize.
• A nontechnical summary is often prepared for
management.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• Once user requirements have been
determined and documented, the project
team:
– Meets with users.
– Explains the requirements.
– Obtains their agreement and approval.
• When an agreement is reached, user
management should sign off on the
requirements.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• The project development team will conduct
the systems analysis in five steps:
– Initial investigation
– Systems survey
– Feasibility study
– Information needs and systems requirements
– Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• The last step in systems analysis is the systems
analysis report.
– Summarizes and documents the activities.
– Serves as a repository of data from which designers
can draw.
– Outlines:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Goals and objectives of the new system.
Scope of the project.
How the new system fits into the company’s master plan.
User processing requirements and information needs.
Feasibility analysis.
Recommendations for the new system.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• A go-no-go decision is usually made three
times during systems analysis:
– During the initial investigation to determine
whether to go ahead with a systems survey.
– At the end of the feasibility study to determine
whether to proceed with the information
requirements step.
– At the completion of the analysis phase to
decide whether to proceed to the next phase
(conceptual design).
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
• When systems analysis is completed, the
project can move on to:
– Conceptual design phase
– Physical design phase
– Implementation and conversion
– Operation and maintenance
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SUMMARY
• You’ve learned about the five phases in the
systems development life cycle, with a particular
emphasis on systems analysis.
• You’ve learned who the players are in the
systems development process.
• You’ve learned about various techniques that
are used to plan the development of a system.
• You’ve reviewed some techniques for
determining system feasibility.
• You’ve learned about behavioral responses to
systems changes and how dysfunctional
behavior can be minimized.
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