Theories of learning
C&I 393
Mathematics Methods I
Learning Theory
Q: How do people learn?
A: Nobody really knows.
But here are a few theories:
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Sociocultural Theory
Social Constructivism
Multiple Intelligences
What is Learning?

A process that brings together cognitive,
emotional, and environmental influences
and experiences for acquiring, enhancing,
or making changes in one's knowledge,
skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2004).

The way in which information is absorbed,
processed, and retained.
Ileris, K (April 2001). "Transformative Learning in the Perspective of a Comprehensive Learning Theory".
Journal of Transformative Education (2): 79–89.
Behaviorism
Confined to observable and measurable
behavior

Classical Conditioning - Pavlov

Operant Conditioning – Skinner
Assumptions of Behaviorism




All species of animals learn in similar
(equal ways with the same guiding
principles
To understand learning processes, focus
on stimulus and responses
Internal process should be excluded from
the study of learning.
Learning is evidenced by a behavior
change
Paris, N.A. Kennesaw State University- M.Ed in
Ad Ed program
5
Assumptions of Behaviorism (cont.)


Organisms are blank slates at birth
Learning is a result of environmental events
Paris, N.A. Kennesaw State University- M.Ed in
Ad Ed program
6
Behaviorism

Classical Conditioning – Pavlov
A stimulus is presented
in order to get a response:
S
R
Behaviorism

Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
S
US
UR
CS
US
CR
Behaviorism

Operant Conditioning - Skinner
The response is made first,
then reinforcement follows.
Behaviorism in the Classroom

Rewards and
punishments

Responsibility for
student learning
rests squarely
with the teacher

Lecture-based,
highly structured
Benny (Erlwanger, 2004)
Stimulus
Response
Your turn!


With a partner, list two examples of
operant conditioning that you have
used or that you see regularly in your
classroom or school.
Try to think of a “behavioral” example and
an “instructional or academic” example.
Paris, N.A. Kennesaw State University- M.Ed in
Ad Ed program
12
Critiques of Behaviorism

Does not account for processes taking place
in the mind that cannot be observed

Advocates for passive student learning in a
teacher-centric environment

One size fits all

Knowledge itself is given and absolute

Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing
Learning Theory
Cognitive Learning Theory
Cognitivism

Grew in response to Behaviorism

Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols

Learning is the process of connecting
symbols in a meaningful & memorable way

Studies focused on the mental processes
that facilitate symbol connection
Cognitive Learning Theory

Discovery Learning Jerome Bruner

Meaningful Verbal
Learning David Ausubel
Cognitive Learning Theory

Discovery Learning
1. Bruner said anybody can learn anything at
any age, provided it is stated in terms they
can understand.
Cognitive Learning Theory

Discovery Learning
2. Powerful Concepts (not isolated facts)
a. Transfer to many different situations
b. Only possible through Discovery Learning
c. Confront the learner with problems and help
them find solutions. Do not present
sequenced materials.
Examples


My 10th grade Chemistry class
Identify this green powder:
Cognitive Learning Theory

Meaningful Verbal Learning
Advance Organizers:
New material is
presented in a
systematic way, and
is connected to
existing cognitive
structures in a
meaningful way.
Cognitive Learning Theory

Meaningful Verbal Learning
When learners have
difficulty with new
material, go back to
the concrete anchors
(Advance Organizers).
Provide a Discovery
approach, and they’ll
learn.
Cognitivism in the Classroom

Inquiry-oriented
projects

Opportunities for the
testing of hypotheses

Curiosity encouraged

Staged scaffolding
Critiques of Cognitivism

Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given
and absolute

Input – Process – Output model is
mechanistic and deterministic

Does not account enough for individuality

Little emphasis on affective characteristics
Learning Theory

Situative Cognition
What is Situative Cognition?

Also known as Situated, Sociohistoric or
Sociocultural.

Learning is tied to the context or situation,
students’ culture shapes their cognitive
development

All learning is highly social, rather than
individual.
A Little on Learning

Two main elements of learning in
situated cognition:
1.
2.
All learning is social and happens
within a community through
participation.
Learning is tied to its situation or
context.
…and more on Learning

Collins (1988) defines situated learning
as “the notion of learning knowledge and
skills in contexts that reflect the way the
knowledge will be useful in real life”

Examples of situated learning:

Brazilian street kids’ math when making sales
on the street
Transfer


According to situated cognition,
knowledge does not transfer between
tasks.
Teaching through abstraction is of little
use since real learning occurs in
authentic situations only

Ex: New police academy grads being told by
experienced cops “now forget everything you
learned”.
More on Transfer

If learning is being able to participate in a
community of practice, the issue of
transfer can be problematic.


Does transfer apply to new practices within a
community (e.g. new math problems) or to
practices outside the community (e.g. work) ?
Many resources and supports in one
community don’t carry over to a different
community.
Situative Cognition in Education

Knowing how to participate in social
practices has a large role in schools.

Classroom activities are often organized as
social groups and children participate in these
groups with varying degrees of success.

Much of students’ identities are formed by the
groups they participate in at school, e.g.
sports, chess, journalism, A.P. classes ...
Situative Cognition in Education

A push for “authentic learning” where
students learn content matter that is situated
in a real world context (ex: Resnick article)



Students are encouraged to think and work like
scientists, historians, mathematicians, etc.
Authentic does not necessarily mean “real world”
but rather tasks that are “true” to the domain
Encouraging classrooms to create a
community of learning that promotes inquiry
and development of identities.
Critiques of Situative Cognition



While the theory takes into account the
social, the individual tends to be ignored.
Transfer is problematic since knowledge
doesn’t transfer between tasks.
The theory can’t account for learning
through abstraction or generalization
(most school learning)
Learning Theory

Social Constructivism
Social Constructivism

Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed
around metacognition

Knowledge is actively constructed

Learning is…






A search for meaning by the learner
Contextualized
An inherently social activity
Dialogic and recursive
The responsibility of the learner
Lev Vygotsky

Social Learning

Zone of Proximal Development
Lev Vygotsky (1896 –1933)
A Russian psychologist, Vygotsky
worked in the post-revolutionary Soviet
Union to rebuild psychology along
Marxist lines. He worked to apply psychology to the
problems confronting the new state, especially in the
field of ed psych. Vygotsky’s writings were banned in
the Soviet Union in 1936 and only became available in
the west in the 1960’s at which point they became
highly influential.
Vygotsky Continued

Cognitive development depends on
interactions with people and tools.

Tools are real: pens, paper, computers; or
symbols: language, math systems, signs
...and more Vygotsky

Vygotsky developed the theory of the
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

The ZPD is the distance between where a
learner is at developmentally on their own and
where a learner could be with the help of a
more knowledgeable other.

A more knowledgeable other can be an
adult or a peer, helping a learner in this way is
to scaffold their learning.
Social Constructivism in the
Classroom

Journaling

Experiential
activities

Personal focus

Collaborative &
cooperative learning
Critiques of Social Constructivism

Suggests that knowledge is neither given
nor absolute

Often seen as less rigorous than traditional
approaches to instruction

Does not fit well with traditional age
grouping and rigid terms/semesters
Learning Theory

Multiple Intelligences
Multiple Intelligences (MI)

Grew out of Constructivism, framed around
metacognition (H. Gardner 1983 to present)

All people are born with eight intelligences:

1. Verbal-Linguistic
5. Musical
2. Visual-Spatial
6. Naturalist
3. Logical-Mathematical
7. Interpersonal
4. Kinesthetic
8. Intrapersonal
Enables students to leverage their strengths and
purposefully target and develop their weaknesses
MI in the Classroom

Delivery of
instruction via
multiple mediums

Student-centered
classroom

Authentic
Assessment

Self-directed
learning
Critiques of MI

Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist

Lack of evidence that use of MI as a
curricular and methodological approach
has any discernable impact on learning

Suggestive of a departure from core
curricula and standards