ATA 522 PART 4
2007
TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY 1945-1950
From Single-Party Era to Multi-Party Era
DEMOCRAT PARTY ERA 1950 -1960
Transition to Democracy and Liberalism
THE SECOND REPUBLIC 1960-1961
27 May 1960 and the 1961 Constitution
PLANNING AND ECONOMIC GROWTH 1961-1973
Problems of Pluralism and Democracy
WORLD RECESSION AND CRISIS 1974-1980
Political and Economic Distress
THE THIRD REPUBLIC AND REFORMS 1980 - 1991
Political and Economic Restructuring
CREDITS AND DEBITS OF GLOBALIZATION
UPS AND DOWNS AND RECOVERY
Towards the 21st Century
1991 - 2004
Turkey
moving in the direction of a more effective
parliamentary democracy
Transition to
modern community of mobile, participant citizens
Population increased
13,5 million in 1927
21 million in 1950
The proportion living in cities rose significantly
An increase in urbanization
Literacy increased
A literate, urban population
New interests and habits
Anxious to be kept informed – Public opinion
The number and circulation of newspapers rose steadily
The number of wireless sets increased
The modernization of communication
THE END OF STATISM
Statism created capital
&
allowed its accumulation in private hands
Classes became differentiated - Conflicts were bound to arise
Difficulty in maintaining the social order
General discontent
The living standard of the peasantry worsened
THE SECOND WORLD WAR
Uneven distribution of burden when war broke out
1.
Sharp increase in the consumption of soil products
2. Diminution in agricultural production / producers drafted
into the army
Shortage of bread
The villages confronted with the following problems:
1.
Shortage of land
2.
Farming methods and techniques
3. Large estates – distribution of national income to the
agricultural population unbalanced
Measures necessitated by war conditions:
Industrialization in its initial stage was possible only by
exploiting the internal markets, chiefly the rural ones.
Heavy taxes levied on agricultural, despite the removal of tithe
(aşar)
The Industrial Workers
Their number increased
Wages in remained extremely low
insufficient for an adequate standard of living
Government control barring the workers from political activity
–
Labor Law (1936)
Industrial workers did not benefit from any government
welfare programs until 1945
except for a few measures connected with work safety and
hygiene
Ministry of Labor established in 1945.
Trade Union Law enacted in 1947
Welfare needs were tackled in a more basic fashion
Welfare insurance (1945) and paid holidays (1951) laws passed
National Defence Law (Milli Korunma Kanunu)
January 1940
Crop prices below the market prices
to keep down the cost of bread in the cities
to the peasants’ detriment
Compulsory contribution of crops demanded by the state:
All crops in excess of the amount needed for family consumption
and seeding to be delivered to the state.
Peasants had to sell their belongings to meet the contribution
quota.
The Urban and Rural Middle Classes
Affected by two major laws to:
a) establish social justice
b) stimulate agriculture.
1. Tax on capital (Varlık Vergisi) 1942
2. Tax on agricultural products (Toprak Mahsulleri Vergisi)
3. Land Reform Law (Çiftçiyi Topraklandırma Kanunu) 1945
Tax on capital - Varlık Vergisi
Addition revenue for urgent military expenditures
A tax upon incomes and capital accumulated through
unorthodox means,
which could not be subjected to ordinary taxes.
On profiteers, businessmen, and intermediaries
who had acquired wealth by speculation and black marketing
with imported goods and essential items.
The firms of the minorities were subjected to the tax
in an arbitrary and unrealistic way.
Land Reform
A social reform to ameliorate the situation of the peasant
The purpose:
1. Land reform - To distribute land to the landless and landshort peasants sufficient to provide a living
2. Agricultural reform - To furnish equipment for its
cultivation - Rationality
Produced violent criticism of the government
The deputies divided into two groups:
1.
Intellectuals and government officials:
adopted a social-intellectual approach. Partitioning the land.
Natural social consequence of populism – Political viewpoint
2.
Deputies with some personal land interests
adopted a technical viewpoint.
Improving the cultivation methods.
(Rational agriculture and mechanization)
Demanded the respect for and guarantee of the right to private
property
(The preservation of the status quo of landed property in
Turkey)
Result: The first concerted opposition to the government and
the formation of the Democratic Party
The People’s Party decided to amend the law
to appease the opposition,
limiting the land to be distributed
to that owned by the government and vakıfs.
The expropriation provisions
concerning private property were barely applied.
The Memorandum of the Four (Dörtlü Takrir)
By Celal Bayar, Adnan Menderes, Refik Koraltan and
Fuat Köprülü supported by Vatan and Tan
a) Turkish constitution be implemented in full
b) b) Democracy established
Democratic Party (Demokrat Parti) January 1946
National Development Party (Milli Kalkınma Partisi) 1945
by Nuri Demirağ
The liberalization of the economy
The development of free enterprise
RPP extraordinary congress – May 1946
1. Liberalizing measures
2. Direct elections
3. The position of permanent chairman of the party abolished
4. The title of “National leader” (Milli Şef) abolished
After the congress:
1. A liberal press law
2. Autonomy for the university
National elections brought forward from July 1947 to July 1946
Catching the Democrats before they fully established
Elections
DP won 62 of the 465 seats
1. Massive vote-rigging (seçim hilesi)
2. No guarantee of secrecy (gizli oy) during the actual voting
3. No impartial supervision of the elections
As soon as the results were declared actual ballots (oy pusulası)
were destroyed making any check impossible
Turkey was desperate for foreign financial assistance
Applied for membership of the IMF 1947
IMF established in 1944
To qualify for membership:
7 September 1947 Decisions
a) A devaluation of Turkish lira by % 120
b) A number of liberalizing measures
aimed at the integration of Turkey into the world economy
Truman doctrine: 1947
Civil War in Greece
American commitment
Military and financial support for Greece & Turkey
to the defence of anti-communist regimes
Marshall Plan 1947 - 1948
Financial support to European countries
Main aim:
a) To help them to rebuild their economies
Complementary aims:
b) To sustain lucrative export market for US industry
c) To eliminate poverty as a breeding ground for communism
1946 - A new economic Five-Year Plan
similar to pre-war plans
Emphasis on autarky and state control
1947 - A new Development Plan
echoed the wishes of the Istanbul business circles and of the DP
1. Free enterprise
2. Development of agriculture and agriculturally based industry
3. Road instead of railways
4. Development of energy sector (oil)
Hardly any difference
between the economic policies of the DP and of the RPP
Exception:
the DP wanted to sell off the state industries (KİT)
Twelfth of July Declaration
by İnönü (July 1947)
a) Legitimized the existence of the opposition
b) Called upon the state apparatus to be impartial
Defeat of hard-liners in the RPP
1947: Hasan Saka replaced Recep Peker
1949: Şemsettin Günaltay, - a more compromise figure
1947 RPP Congress
RPP moved even closer to the DP program
1. Advocated free enterprise
2. Decided to retract article 17 of Land Reform
3. Allowed religious education in the schools
4. Reformed the Village Institutes
Istanbul Economic Congress - 1948
Support for liberal economic policies
American Missions
American fact-finding missions - commissions
The World Bank Report 1949
influencial in government circles
in line with the 1947 Plan
RECOVERY
1945-1950 - years of growth
(11 % growth in GDP per year)
From very low level of economic activity of WWII
Large gold & foreign exchange stocks
accumulated during WWII
Purchase of chrome ore by belligerents
Nonavailability of imports
Investment Program
A good position to step up investment program
Machines, contruction materials, etc. to be imported
A disguised form of investment in agriculture
Money Supply
An increase in money supply
Subsidizing basic crops to a level above world prices
(wheat price about double the going world price)
Tax Burden
Tax burden of rural populace decreased
compared to urban population
To stir economic incentive
Large share of the national income channeled
into the rural areas
Assistance
Military and economic assistance from the US
- International position strengthened
- Domestic investment load lightened
Autarky came to an end – Incorporation speeded up
Economic growth in agricultural sector
From 1947
Trade surplus changed into a trade deficit
due to fast-rising imports of machinery
Social policies
The ban on organizations with a class base lifted (1946)
Trade unions established – 1946 - linked to socialist parties
Martial law – close them down
International Labor Organization
Turkey joined the ILO
1947 Law on Trade Unions
a) gave to the workers the right of organization in trade unions
b) forbade political activity & strikes
DP promised to grant workers the right to strike (grev hakkı)
Restictive policies of the governments
Until 1950 – labor unions acting as adjuncts of the RPP
After 1950 – an independent labor movement
Special courts to handle labor cases (1950)
Weak Trade Unions
because:
a) Small number of industrial workers
b) Low level of education
c) Extreme poverty of working class – insufficient union dues
(aidat)
Private Banking Institutions
Yapı Kredi 1944
Garanti 1946
Akbank 1948
The Industrial Development Bank of Turkey
(Sanayi Kalkınma Bankası) 1950
Purpose:
Recruiting capital for private business
at more reasonable terms
Liberalism
in the air before the Democrats came to power
A powerful industrial bureaucracy
developed under RPP eagis – State industries
Difficult to unseat KİTs.
By 1950:
Literacy % 34.5
Population : 20.9
Labor force: 10.6 million
Persons employed in industry and crafts: % 8.7 of the labour
force
Per capita real income: index 107
(1938 the base year_(100)) - 1929 : 87
Bank deposits: from 197 million TL (1937)
to 1.031 million TL (1950)
DP = A splinter group from RPP
Split off from the DP
Nation Party (Millet Partisi) – Marshal Fevzi Çakmak
A more uncompromising opposition to the RPP
Religiously motivated
Election law - Bone of contention – February 1950
1. Free and fair elections
2.Supervision of the elections by the judiciary
The elections of 14 May 1950
– free and fair
– without major incident
– very high turnout ( % 80) (of the electorate casting its vote)
Electoral system
Majoritarian (Çoğunluk sistemi)
versus Proportional Representation (Nisbî temsil)
DP received 408 seats (% 53.5)
against the RPP’s 69 (39.8)
Nation Party (Millet Partisi) won 1 seat
RPP votes from east of Ankara:
notables, tribal chiefs & large landowners controlled the vote
DP - First political organization with a mass following
Catch-all Party
Peaceful handover of power (1950)
Peaceful transition
from autoritarianism to multi-party democracy (1946)
Unique experience in the developing world
A democratic heritage
Experiments with parliamentary election ( since 1876)
Multy party democracy (1908-1913) (1924) (1930)
1950 – 1960 Democrat Party Era
1. Liberal economic policies
2. Authoritarian methods to curb the opposition
3. Relaxation of secularist policies
4. Strengthening ties with the West
1951 and 1953 RPP congresses
1. Six arrows redefined
2. More emphasis on social policies
In 1953
Democrat Party
a) dominated National Assembly
b) requisitioned all the RPP’s material assets
c) closed People’s Houses (Halkevleri) & People’s Rooms (Halk
odaları)
Insecurity within DP
1953 : Amendments
Government control of the press and the universities
1954 (before the elections)
The press law tightened
1954 Elections
Increased DP majority: 503 seats for the DP
RPP left with 31 seats
A tremendous success for Menderes
Massice support of peasantry
Policies vindicated by the economic boom
Nation Party (Millet Partisi)
banned in 1953
reconstituted as the Republican Nation Party
(Cumhuriyetçi Millet Partisi)
won 5 seats in 1954
Economic Development
DP trusted implicitly in the working of the market
Foreign Capital
The Law to encourage foreign investment 1951
Foreign investment remained extremely limited
% 1 of total private investment
No more than 30 firms invested
Emerging Turkish Bourgeoisie
expected to start investing the profits accumulated in the 1940’s
Family businesses
hesitated to invest on the scale desired by DP
Privatization
of large state enterprises - a dead letter
Contributions
from private sector & foreigners disappointing
% 40 to 50 of investment came from the State
Investments concentrated:
1. Road network
2. Building industry (İnşaat Sektörü)
3. Agro-industries
New roads
Switch to road transport
a changeover from public to privately owned transport
to lower transport costs
Tied the country together – National market
Opened up access to the villages
More effective marketing and distribution
End of Railways
The building of railways came to an almost complete halt
Highways
1600 km of hard-surfaced roads in 1950
5400 km of hard-surfaced two-lane highways
built between 1950-1960
with American technical and financial assistance
Turkey obtained the services of the U.S. Public Roads
Administration
Fast-rising number of cars, buses and trucks
in private hands
Effectiveness of the investments
lessened in three ways:
1. Investments uncoordinated
2. Quick and tangible results expected
3. Investment decisions politically inspired
1. Investments uncoordinated
Menderes - allergic to economic planning
Associated it with the evils of statism
Denounced planning as synonymous with communism
2. DP wanted quick and tangible results
(to reach the level of Europe within 50 years )
DP confused development with growth
a) Use of credit facilities and investments short-sighted
b) Aimed at a high level of growth
rather than
a long-term improvements in the productive capacity
3. Investment decisions politically inspired
Factories put up in:
a) economically unpromising locations
b) the wrong sectors
Income distribution & social policies
a) Agricultural incomes grew faster
than non-agricultural incomes
Larger farmers profited most
b) Profits grew faster than wages & salaries in the towns
Traders and industrialists were relatively better off
Worsening inflation from 1955
hit wage- and salary- earners
Still, by 1960,
their real incomes had grown considerably
compared
with the immediate post-war years
Demographic Transformation – Revolution
1. Respectable increase in total population
2. Unbanization:
Mass migration from countryside to towns
Major cities growing by % 10 a year
Labor migration - permanent rather than seasonal
3. Emigration to European countries (Germany etc.)
Limited Capacity
of new industries
to accommodate fast-growing but unskilled workforce
Small proportion found permanent jobs in industry
Most of the migrants ended up
as casual labourers or as street vendors (sokak satıcısı)
Disguised Unemployment (Gizli işsizlik)
Lack of infrastructure
Cities - not equipped to receive large numbers of new
inhabitants
Satellite towns (shanty-towns)
sprang up without infrastructure
No water, electricity, roads, or sewage system
(Gecekondu)
Settlers built their houses
on unused land on the outskirts of town
Labour Conditions
Trade Unions Law of 1947
Most unions were linked to the RPP
through “Workers Bureau” (İş Bürosu)
Unions forced on the workers by the RPP
DP powerful weapon: The promise to grant
the right to strike
After the elections this promise forgotten
The trade Unions Confederation (Turk İş) 1952
Founded with moral and material assistance
from the International Conference of Free Trade Unions
The position of the unions remained week
Extremely low living standards of the members
Contributions (Aidat)
insufficient for the running of the organizations
Economic Problems
Turkey suffered a trade deficit from 1947 onwards
even during the boom years of 1950-53
Turkey had a wheat surplus
became a major wheat exporter
The boom was over by 1954
Weather conditions worsened
Turkey imported wheat once again
1956 -59 marked by spiralling inflation
Prices rising at % 18 per annum
Growth rate levelled out to a mediocre % 4
Barely enough to keep up with the high birth rate
No sign of self-sustaining development
Agricultural growth
Extensive farming dominant
achieved by a combination of:
1. Extension of the sown area
2. Exceptionally good weather
Intensive farming marginal
a) Improved agricultural techniques
b) Irrigation
c) Use of fertilizers
Economic growth
fell from around % 13 to % 4
Trade deficit
in 1955 was 8 times that of 1950
Government kept up
the rate of imports and investment
Turkey’s strategic position in the Cold War
to get
financial aid and easily borrowing terms
In 1960
total external debt stood at 1.5 billion $ = ¼ of the GNP
The weakness of the economy
Solution for financial problems :
effective taxation
taxing the new wealth in the countryside
Finances
Rich (large) landowners & substantial farmers
earned more than a % 20 of the GDP
paid only 2 % of the total tax revenue
Political considerations = Populism
prevented DP from levying taxes in rural areas
Inflation
Instead of taxation
borrowed from Central Bank = printing money
Inflation went up
from 3 % in 1950 to 20 % in 1958
hitting
a) wage-earners
b) salary- earners & pensioners
c) consumers in towns
Measures (from September 1953)
Import and foreign exchange controls
Ending
1. Five-year period of gradual opening up of the economy
2. Rapid integration into the world economy
From 1954
International financial institutions began to caution DP
Classical “IMF package” prescribed:
1. Devaluation of TL
2. End to artificial prices and to subsidies
3. End to import and export restrictions
DP resisted these pressures
Stuck to official fixed exchange rate of TL
Result:
a) Economy deteriorated
b) Inflation grew
Gap between the official rate & the real value of TL widened
Black-market in foreign currency by 1958
Instead of recognizing the economic realities
DP revived National Defense Law
Milli Korunma Kanunu (1940)
to enforce price controls
Result:
Black market = Goods disappeared from shelves
Finally
DP agreed to the demands of the IMF (August 1958)
1. Devaluated TL
2. Rescheduled debts
3. Rised prices of KİT products
In exchange: Loan package
from USA, European countries, IMF
The debit side of DP’s Economic Policy
Unsound financial and fiscal structure
Creating
1. Huge deficits in balance of payment = Debts
2. Inflation at home = Black market
The credit side
mobility and dynamism
1. Modernized agriculture
Passage from extensive farming to intensive farming
2. Increased the industrial base
Large industrial firms have their roots in the 1950s
3. Built new road network opening up the country
Villages came into contact with the outside world
From 1954
Economic downturn eroded support for the DP
Reasons:
a) Deterioration in standards of living
Limits put on the imports of consumer goods
b) Rise in the expectations of material improvement
1957 Elections:
Gradual loss of support for DP in the countryside
Still kept the support of the majority
Serious problem:
Crumbling / decaying support of
1) intellectuals
2) bureaucracy
3) armed forces
Results:
a) Groving economic difficulties = inflation
hitting salaried people, civil servants, pensioners
b) Groving authoritarianism
hitting intellectuals & universities
Measures against bureaucracy
Suspected of loyalty to İnönü and RPP
Political control over the executive and judiciary
Restricted academic freedom
Incidents in the universities
Increased hold over the bureaucracy
Civil servant: over 25 years of service
could be suspended and sent into retirement
Applied also to judges & university professors
Tension in foreign policy:
Riots of September – The future of Cyprus
6-7 Eylül Olayları – Events of September 6-7
Impasses in negotiations - Nationalist fervour
fanned by the press
Expected:
A limited spontaneous demonstration by students
to demonstrate public feeling
Result:
Demonstrations got out of hand
Developed into a pogrom (plunder)
against orthodox citizens
Attack on wealth
by the inhabitants of the gecekondus
Martial law declared (İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir)
Interior minister resigned
Opposition
to authoritarian policies within DP (1955)
vis-a-vis the press, the universities & the judiciary
Bone of contention within DP
Right to Prove (Ispat Hakkı)
journalists taken to courts
should have the right to prove the truth
of what they have written
Proposal rejected by DP parliamentry group
Vote of confidence - Dissent / dissagreement within the DP
Liberal wing broke away
Freedom Party (Hürriyet Partisi) - December 1955
under the leadership of Fevzi Lutfi Karaosmanoğlu
Became the biggest opposition party
supported by big business
Wanted:
A more sophisticated economic policy – planning
1956
Authoritarianism continued
National Defence Law revived to control prices and supplies
Press Law changed
to strengthen further government control of the media
Political meetings prohibited except during election campaigns
Elections due in 1958
pulled back (27 October 1957)
a) Prices of agricultural products raised
b) Ten-month moratorium on farmer’s debts
Cooperation between opposition parties
Joint declaration of principles (4 September)
Law (11 September) banned
the use of combined lists in elections
1957 Elections – A major setback for DP
DP = the largest party, but lost the absolute majority
DP % 47.3 & 424 seats
RPP % 40.6 & 178 seats (in 1954 31 seats)
FP (extremely disappointing) % 3.8 & 4 seats
Republican Nation Party (ultra-conservative) % 7 & 4 seats
After the elections
RNP merged with Peasants Party (Köylü Partisi)
to form
The Republican Peasants National Party
(Cumhuriyetçi Köylü Millet Partisi)
December 1958
FP – no grassroots organization - merged with RPP
Infusion of new ideas to reorientate the RPP
a) social justice
b) democratic safeguards
Secularism
DP confronted with an hostile opposition
A worsening economic crisis
Crubling support among city-dwellers & intellectuals
DP (1957) appealed to religious sentiments
a) Described the Republicans as communists and unbelievers
b) Boasted about the number of mosques and religious schools
opened under DP
DP charged / accused of
a) using religion for political purposes
b) reneging on the secularist principles of the state
DP used religion for political purposes
However
DP did not undermine the secular character of the republic
Kemalism (Single-Party Era)
A modernization strategy based on a positivist world vision
Religion seen as a hindrance to progress in modernization
Kemalist secularism
subjugation and integration of religion
into the state bureaucracy
rather then
separation of church and state
In the 30s and 40s – extremely repressive
After 1946 (Multi-Party Era)
Parties started to court the Muslim vote
RPP : (After 1947 congress)
more tolerant of religion
a) Reintroduced elective religious education in schools
& training establishments for preachers
b) Faculty of Divinity in Ankara University
c) Tombs and shrines (türbe) reopened (1949)
But: tried to guard against religious reaction in politics
Article 163 (Penal code) :
Prohobited
propoganda attacking the secular character of the state
DP (Before 1950)
Great care to emphasize secularism
Islamic currents (Sebilürreşat etc.) attacked the DP
Formation of more radical opposition parties:
Nation Party
Dissolved in 1953
for alleged complicity in reactionary religious plot
DP (After 1950)
Relaxation of secularist policies
a) Restrictions relaxed on expressions of religious feeling
b) Concessions to the feelings of the Muslim population
c) Koran reading on the wireless
& reversion to Arabic for the prayer call
d) Religious education expended
e) Parents had to opt out instead of having to opt in
f) The number of preacher schools enlarged
g) Increase in the building of mosques
h) The sale of religious literature allowed again
i) accepted the existence of autonomous religious organizations
(legitimized brotherhoods)
But still:
The DP’s understanding of the secularism
- not significantly different from that of the RPP
- did not end the integration of the religious establishment
into the bureaucracy
-Preacher remained civil servant
-The administration of religious endowments in state hands
Emergence of anti-secularism
1950-51 Dervish sheikhs came out into the open
with large following
Ticani dervish order started to smash busts of Atatürk
Persecuted vigorously by the government
Their leader, Kemal Pilavoğlu sent to jail
Law against defaming Atatürk’s memory passed in 1951
However
Nurcu movement supported DP in the elections
DP tacitly admitted:
Religion was not necessarily incompatible with development
Within the army
seen as betrayal to the Kemalist traditions
Result:
Islam made much prominent in everyday life in the cities
visible in urban milieux through migration
But seen a a resurgence of Islam by intellectuals
Religious Dilemma
Obscurantism or traditional culture of the mass of population ?
Interpreted as:
The former subject class reasserting its right to express itself
Economic Convergence
Economic policies of RPP and DP
differed in emphasis
Not in direction
SEE not turned over to private capital
State continued to invest heavily
Illiberal spirit
After 1954
DP sought to buttress their strong position
by restricting political liberties
1954-59
Prosecutions of
journalists,
editors &
newpaper owners
Ammendments to the press & libel (iftira / hareket) laws – 1956
Severe penalties for criticizing persons in official positions
Control of the allocation of newsprint – 1958
Amendments to Civil Service Law 1954
a) judges and university teachers after 24 years service or at
age 60 sent to retirment (emeklilik)
b) Dismissal of civil servants after a period of suspension
(görevden el çektirme)
Activites of political parties curtailed
Amendment to the electoral law to prevent electoral coalitions
Public meetings & demonstrations banned except
in the 45 day campaign period preceding elections
Rise in the political temperature
Opposition accused of intirfering with
a) the army
b) arming its own followers
Fatherland Front (Vatan Cephesi) 1958
To broaden the DP’s base
To mobilize the mass of population
1960 Investegatory Commission
to investigate activities of the opposition
(Tahkikat Komisyonu)
Commission set up with powers
a) To suppress newspapers
b) Subpoena (summon to appear before the Commission)
persons and documents
c) To imprison for up to 3 years those who impeded its
investigations
Commision denounced as unconstitutional by law professor
Accused of engaging in politics
Disciplinary action taken against them
Student demonstrations and riots
The effect of the restrictions
Political strife driven out into the streets
The events of 28 & 29 April 1960
Use of the troops to suppress demonstrations
One student killed
Silent demonstration by cadets of the War Academy (Harbiye)
21 May 1960
Dubious legitimacy of the measures
Encouraged illegitimate means of action
Opposition strong in large towns
Particularly amongst students
Educated sections of society
a) Schools & Universities
b) Civil service
c) Military officer class
Former elite displaced from the center of the stage
Fall in purchasing power of the salaries
Displaced as the elite in society
New centers of wealth and influence
Necessity to call in the army to suppress demonstrations
Army – sympathy with İnönü
Why did DP cling so obstinately to power ?
1 . The character of the DP leadership
2. Restriction on personal basis
rather than rational basis
3. Excessive confidence
in their popularity & their own legitimacy
1 . The character of the DP leadership.
Active participation in the authoritarian RPP
not democratic by training
2. Restriction on personal basis
rather than rational basis
İnönü complex
frustrated in the RPP
unable to unseat İnönü
3. Excessive confidence in their popularity
&
their own legitimacy
Support of the bulk of the electorate
Little interference with traditional and religious customs
Underestimated the power of the Opposition
End of Part 4