Dear Editor,
Thank you very much for taking the time to review this manuscript for your journal. The information presented in the body of the
paper is an original work, and is not under consideration for publication by any other journal. Should you have any questions
regarding the manuscript, please do not hesitate to contact me at either my email address or home address, or by the home
telephone number provided below.
The title of the paper is Using an iPad for EFL positive self-review: The influence on affective variables.
Sincerely,
David Ockert, MEd
Nagano City Board of Education
39-2-204 Okada Shimo-okada
Matsumoto-shi, Nagano-ken
Japan, 390-0313
Email: davidockert1@gmail.com
Phone: (0081) 263-46-2024
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Using an iPad for EFL positive self-review: The influence on affective variables
David Ockert
Nagano City Board of Education
39-2-204 Okada Shimo-okada
Matsumoto-shi, Nagano-ken
Japan 390-0313
Email: davidockert1@gmail.com
Ph / fax: (0081) 246-346-2024
Abstract
This paper reports the results of a small-scale exploratory longitudinal study which tested for the influence of a camcorder and an
iPad video intervention on self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) based motives to learn English; and confidence,
anxiety, and foreign language willingness to communicate (WTC, McCroskey & Baer, 1985) amongst junior high school students
in Nagano, Japan. The survey instruments were administered before and after the two video interventions, arguably a method of
video self-modeling (Dowrick, 1976). The results show that the class which received the iPad intervention (n = 22) had an
increase in identified regulation (the Ideal L2 Self items; Dörnyei, 2005); intrinsic motives stimulation and accomplishment;
confidence, and WTC; and a decrease in anxiety. The results and implications are discussed.
Keywords: tablet-computers; EFL; self-determination theory; willingness to communicate; confidence
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Using an iPad for EFL positive self-review: The influence on affective variables
1. Introduction
Research has shown that interventions which stimulate autonomy, competence, and relatedness improve student selfdetermination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) based motives to study English (e.g. Hiromori, 2006). In addition, Fukada,
Fukuda, Falout and Murphey (2011) demonstrated that possible selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986) can be used to increase
motivation in university students. These studies show that affective variables - motives, attitudes, perceived competence (aka selfconfidence, Hashimoto, 2002), anxiety - not only play a role in EFL learning, but can be positively influenced by teacher
interventions. The purpose of the research undertaken for this study was to test the impact of a video and a tablet-computer, an
iPad, intervention on the L2 Learning Experience, the third component of Dörnyei’s (2010) Ideal L2 Self theory, which concerns
situated motives related to the immediate learning environment and experience. This paper builds on previous research by the
author which has shown strong correlational relationships between in-class iPad use to record students successfully speaking in
English in front of class, confidence, anxiety, and WTC, (AUTHOR, 2014) and iPad use and SDT-based motives to study English
(AUTHOR, in press).
Dowrick (1991) has defined self-modeling as learning that occurs as a result of repeated observations of oneself on
edited videotapes that depict only desired behaviors. The research results presented in this paper differ in that the students had the
opportunity to view themselves successfully speaking English on one occasion only. Yet, the results of the positive impact that
this had on these students is undeniable. Therefore, this paper is amongst the first to examine the use of an iPad to record students
speaking in English in front of their peers as an intervening stimulus to influence SDT-based motives, confidence, anxiety, FL
WTC and the relationships between them. With tablet computers gaining an ever increasing share of classroom use via various
applications, the use of iPad devices can be utilized anywhere with ease. Can teachers use tablet computers as a means to motivate
our students? Does recording our students while successfully speaking English positively influence their motives, confidence, and
WTC? Will doing so help alleviate their anxiety toward English use? These are questions that this research project set out to
answer and the results are quite compelling.
2. Self-determination theory-based L2 motives
2.1 The importance of competence, relatedness, and autonomy
Deci and Ryan's (1985) self-determination theory (SDT) focuses on the primary and innate needs for competence, relatedness, and
autonomy (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier & Ryan, 1991). According to Deci and Ryan (1985), the several types of motivated behaviors
are ordered along a continuum of self-determination (see Figure 1). In L2 learning research, the SDT based research results point
to the importance of motivation from within (Deci & Flaste, 1996), whether defined in terms of intrinsic or integrative motivation
(Gardner, 1985). This motivation from within is believed to sustain the learning process more effectively than motivation that is
externally regulated or controlled by the teacher and the research evidence thus far supports this view (e.g. Deci et al. 1991;
Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000), and the research shows that in order to help our students, educators need to find
ways of finding, supporting and maintaining students’ own motivation to learn (Ushioda, 2006).
Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of academic motivation based on self-determination theory (Vallerand, 1997)
2.2 SDT-based L2 motivation studies
In L2 research, Noels and her associates (Noels, Clement & Pelletier, 1999, 2001; Noels, Pelletier, Clément & Vallerand, 2003)
have used SDT-based surveys in FL studies with consistent empirical results. Their work to 'recast' the integrative and
instrumental orientations into the SDT motivation framework has helped to “organize systematically many of the reasons for
learning a L2” (Noels, et al., 1999, p. 24). The instruments and results presented by Noels and her colleagues have served as the
basis for several studies in the JEFL environment (e.g. Yashima et al., 2009). In addition, the relationships between the three
psychological needs of competence, relatedness, and autonomy, upon which SDT theory is based, have been shown to have a
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strong influence on student motivation, a precursor to FL WTC (Nakahira, Yashima, & Maekawa, 2010).
3. WTC, confidence, and anxiety in an L2
3.1 Background of WTC, confidence, and anxiety
The construct WTC was first reported on in L1 research by McCroskey and his associates (McCroskey, 1992;
McCroskey & Richmond, 1987; McCroskey & Richmond, 1991). Their research shows that WTC captures the major implications
that affective variables such as anomie, communication apprehension, introversion, reticence, self-esteem and shyness have in
regards to their influence on communicative behavior (McCroskey & Richmond, 1991). Research into WTC has focused on four
speaking contexts (public, meeting, group and dyad) and three types of receivers (stranger, acquaintance and friend) (McCroskey,
1992; McCroskey & Baer, 1985). Based on the amount of the preceding affective variables, a student may choose “to enter into
discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using a L2” (MacIntyre, Clement, Dörnyei & Noels, 1998, p. 547).
3.2 L2 studies on WTC
MacIntyre and his associates (MacIntyre, 1994, 2007; Macintyre & Charos, 1996; Macintyre et al., 1998) have
investigated L2 and FL WTC for more than two decades. MacIntyre’s (1994) path model postulates that WTC is a combination of
greater perceived communicative competence and a lower level of communication apprehension (CA). The model also postulates
that anxiety influences the speaker’s self-perception of competence, and higher anxiety will therefore inhibit WTC via a lower
level of self-perceived competence. Building on previous research results, Macintyre and Charos (1996) proposed a model which
hypothesized that personality traits and social context have an indirect effect on L2 communication through attitudes, motivation,
language anxiety, and perceived competence. Their hypothesis was based on personality traits measured using a survey of global
personality traits: extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and intellect. It was shown that these
personality traits influenced motivation and WTC, which in turn affected L2 communication frequency. In addition, the social
context was measured by a self-report measure and it was found that having more opportunities for interaction in the L2 affects
frequency of L2 use directly and also indirectly through perceived competence and WTC. These results support Macintyre et al.’s
(1998) belief that context and personality are two of the variables influencing WTC.
Figure 2. The heuristic model of variables influencing WTC (Macintyre et al., 1998, p. 547)
3.2.1 EFL studies on WTC
Several studies have explored learner’s WTC in an L2 by trying to identify the underlying influences of the variables
that precede the act of L2 communication (Hashimoto, 2002; MacIntyre et al., 1998; Yashima, 2002; Yashima et al., 2004). In
research by Hashimoto (2002), self-perceived competence and anxiety are precursors to L2 WTC and motivation as based on
Gardner’s (1985) model, the latter two variables influencing L2 use frequency. Hashimoto (2002) has added that “perceived
competence or self-confidence” (p. 57) in an L2 are positive indicators of motivation. She indicates that they are, in fact, the same
construct. In EFL studies on WTC in Japan, Matsuoka (2005) used SEM to show that introversion, motivational intensity,
communication apprehension and IP were “significant predictors of L2 WTC” (p. 157). In addition, it was shown “that perceived
competence (or self-confidence) and L2 WTC were significant predictors of L2 proficiency” (p. 157). In addition, using a
regression analysis on data collected from JHS students, AUTHOR (2012) found that confidence was “the strongest indicator of
WTC” (p. 174), while anxiety was a strong negative indicator as well. Therefore, since both motivation and WTC are consistently
4
shown to be predictors of L2 proficiency and use, the present study will test to see to what extent an iPad intervention has on SDTbased motives to learn English and WTC in English based on self-report measures.
3.2.2 Recent developments in WTC research
MacIntyre (2012) has recently described “currents and waves” (p. 12) of L2 WTC. These are ‘trends’ toward WTC in
an L2, which occur in a student’s mind as they decide whether to speak or not. By examining WTC on multiple timescales within
the class room, he describes the following four ‘waves’:
• What will other students think, will they tease me for getting it right or laugh at me for getting it wrong (a wave of
social comparisons)?
• Will I be embarrassed in front of the teacher (a wave of personal pessimism)?
• I think I know the answer to the question; maybe I should try (a wave of self-confidence)?
• Does someone else know the answer to the question (a wave of isolation)? (p. 15)
All of those influences and more will converge and have an impact on whether a student will choose to put their hand up to
answer the question or avoid volunteering a response. He also describes the ‘waves’ that a student might experience regarding the
WTC “to a second language speaker in a public context, for example someone who stops to ask for directions” (p. 15). These
include:
•There might be the question about where the conversation is going to go (a wave of anxiety)
•Whether the student’s response might be misunderstood (a wave of concern for the tourist)
•Whether somebody with better second language skill might be able to help instead (a wave of social comparison)
•What if the helper makes a mistake or uses poorly chosen vocabulary (a wave lacking self-confidence)? (p. 15)
3.3 Confidence as a precursor to WTC
It has long been understood that confidence is a precursor of WTC in an L2 (see MacIntyre et al., 1998). In the Japanese
English as a foreign language (JEFL) learning context, the influence of motivation (based on Gardner and Lambert’s (1972) items
for motivational intensity and desire), and confidence led to L2 use via WTC amongst high school students has been shown
(Yashima, Zenuk-Nishide & Shimizu, 2004). Yashima and her associates (Yashima, 2000, 2002; Yashima et al., 2004) have
conducted research in the JEFL context on affective variables and FL WTC. Yashima (2000) has reported on the relationships
between language learning orientations and motivations of Japanese college students and the influence of international posture
(IP) on confidence, foreign language willingness to communicate (FL WTC) and L2 learning motivation (Yashima, 2002).
Furthermore, attitudes, affect, and WTC were found to influence second language communication amongst EFL students studying
abroad (Yashima et al., 2004).
3.4 Anxiety as a precursor to WTC
In a second language (L2) study on anxiety and English language use, Woodrow (2006) found that “two types of
anxious language learner emerged; retrieval interference and skills deficit” (p. 308), which would indicate that perceived
competence and self-confidence would be negatively influenced as well. In addition, “the results indicate that the most frequent
source of anxiety was interacting with native speakers” (p. 308). In their study on the relationship between communication
confidence, WTC, and the classroom environment, Ghonsooly, Fatemi, and Fadafen (2013) report that “correlational analyses also
indicated that willingness to communicate is positively correlated with classroom environment and perceived communicative
competence, and negatively correlated with communication anxiety” (p. 1). These results support those found by other researchers
reported herein with the important addition that what occurs in the classroom environment can influence students’ affect. Yashima
et al. (2009) also demonstrated that anxiety and self-determination theory’s (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) intrinsic motives are
precursors to, and therefore influence, WTC.
4. Using technology to influence student affective variables
4.1 Video self-modeling
There are two types of Video Self Modeling (VSM; Dowrick, 1976). The first, Feed Forward, “refers to video images
of adaptive behavior that has not yet been achieved. These are created by editing together components of skills already
available…These elements can be videotaped separately and edited together into a novel, competent video image” (“VFP”, p. 5,
n.d.). Dowrick (1977, in Markus & Nurius, 1986, pp. 961-962) used this type of video recording as an ‘intervention’ in which
students with severe psychomotor impairments were asked to perform a task that was beyond their ability level. Participant
‘errors’ were removed during the editing process. The viewing of the successful completion of the tasks was shown to enhance the
future performance of the participants. Another variation of VSM is known as Positive Self-Review (PSR; “VFP”, p. 5, n.d.). In
PSR, the participants view themselves successfully completing a target behavior with the goal of reinforcing the behavior
(Dowrick, 1991, 1999.) The results presented in this paper are amongst the first to report the use an iPad as an intervening PSR
5
stimulus to positively influence student amotivation and SDT-based motives to study EFL.
4.1.1 JEFL studies on table-computer use in the classroom
There have been relatively few studies involving tablet computers in the classroom. However, after experimenting with
the use of an iPad in the classroom, Brown, Castellano, Hughes and Worth (2012) found that “The data indicate that this particular
tablet, the Apple iPad, offered benefits such as speed, video viewing and versatility. However, data also showed that its usefulness
depended on the task” (p. 207). For the present study, students were video recorded with an iPad while giving a short ‘quiz’ to
their classmates. This allowed some of them to view their successful performance at a later time. Previous research has shown that
iPad use has a powerful effect on WTC via confidence (AUTHOR, 2014). Furthermore, SDT motives have also been shown to be
influenced by an iPad intervention (AUTHOR, in press). The research presented in this paper explores specifically what, if any,
influence the iPad intervention in the classroom has on the relationship(s) between student SDT motives, anxiety, confidence, and
WTC.
5. SDT-based research on video game motivation
5.1 SDT research studies on Ideal Selves and video game use
Przybylski and his associates (Przybylski, Weinstein, Murayama, Lynch, & Ryan, 2012; Przybylski, Rigby & Ryan,
2010; Ryan, Rigby & Przybylski, 2006) have investigated the relationship between the Ideal Self and video game use using a selfdetermination theory-based model, which focused in particular on the ‘motivational pull’ of video games. For example,
Przybylski, Rigby and Ryan (2010) investigated how video games may put players “in touch with ideal aspects of themselves (and
how this) is associated with the games’ motivational appeal” (p. 74). They “found evidence that convergence between people’s
experience of themselves during play and their concept of their ideal selves was related to enjoyment of play and positive shifts in
affect” (p. 74). They believe that “The results of our work make clear that humans are drawn to video and computer games at least
in part because such games provide players with access to ideal aspects of themselves; such access, in turn, can have short-term
effects on emotion” (Przybylski et. al., 2012, p. 75).
5.1.1 Parallels between PSR with tablet-computer use and video game use
As shown by the previous studies, the students’ viewing of their successful use of English via the iPad parallels the
psychological satisfaction of the successful completion of a video game activity. This may be due to the fact that, “Increasingly,
intervention-focused researchers are demonstrating that games can positively influence both psychological and physical wellbeing” (Przybylski, Rigby & Ryan, 2010, p. 154). There are various reasons for the psychological appeal of video games, not the
least of which are the need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness – the three pillars of SDT. Studies have shown that there
are changes in the human brain as a result of engaging in activities that are self-determined (see Murayama et al., 2014). There are
parallels between game use and tablet computer use for PSR. For example, Can the use of an iPad to record students speaking in
English and allowing the same students to view themselves successfully speaking English also support the need for competence,
autonomy, and relatedness? Research has shown that the effect of the hormone dopamine has a strong and positive effect on the
humans as a result of successfully completing a task (Murphey, 2011) in addition to other changes in the brain (see Murayama,
Matsumoto, Izuma, & Matsumoto, 2010). Furthermore, research on achievement goals shows similar results for a neural basis in
the cognitive reward system (see Murayama, Elliot, & Friedman, 2012).
5.2 JEFL studies involving video use and motivation
In the JEFL learning situation, the results of research studying changes of student affect by Takiguchi (2002) shows that
real-time communication with students in foreign countries using a video conferencing telephone system (e.g. Skype or Gizmo)
via the Internet improved student interest, concern, and desire (WTC). Takiguchi (2002) carried out a research project testing for
changes in affective variables of Japanese elementary students who used VoIP software to communicate with NESs. His results
have shown that real-time, in-class communication with students in foreign countries using a voice over Internet protocol (VoIP)
conferencing system (e.g. Skype or Gizmo) improved student interest, concern, and desire. Furthermore, the use of Skype has
been shown to enable students at schools in various regions around the world to communicate. In addition, research in JEFL
classrooms has focused on the use of digital video to promote communication (Foss, 2008; Rawson, 2008), increase student
motivation (Shrosbee, 2008), and confidence while speaking (Wyers, 1999, in Shrosbee, 2008). In recent research (AUTHOR,
2014) found that JHSs who were video-recorded using an iPad tablet computer responded favorably, with noticeable improvement
in affect. For example,
6. Objectives of the present study
The purposes of the present study are to examine the relationships between the SDT factors, WTC instrument subsections, and the three questions on the influence of a video camcorder or iPad use. Analysis will help determine what, if any,
causal relationships exist between the SDT, WTC and video and iPad-related survey questions. After reviewing the results of the
6
first iteration of the surveys (see AUTHOR, 2012, p. 174, Table 4) and previous research results, four research questions motivate
the present study:
6.1 Research questions:
1. Will the use of the iPad to record students while successfully speaking English increase their SDT-based motives
enough to influence their WTC in English? 2. Will the use of the iPad to record students while successfully speaking English
increase their confidence and SDT-based motives, in particular their L2 Selves, leading to an increase in WTC in English?
6.2 Hypothesis:
1. The use of an iPad for PSR in the classroom will positively influence student intrinsic motivates, confidence, WTC,
and lower their anxiety. 2. The correlation analysis will show strong positive relationships between questions regarding the iPad
use, confidence, and WTC, and a negative relationship with anxiety.
7. Method
7.1 Participants
Both the pre- and post-intervention surveys for this study were filled out by students in four classes (N = ???) of
Japanese junior high school students in a single school in Nagano City, Japan. These four classes were divided into six smaller
groups for English classes with the goal of producing six classes of equal ability (classes A, B, C, D, E, and F); there was no
discernible difference in ability between the boys and the girls in any class before or after forming the six classes (C. Kitamura,
pers. comm., April, 2012). The surveys were filled out during the final semester of the students second and third years,
respectively. Each class had a different Japanese teacher but the same ALT. The data reported in this paper are for the students who
participated in the iPad intervention (class B) and another class which had no intervention (class A). The other participant data is
not presented for comparison since it is of no value for interpreting the data reported herein, and would simply cloud the readers
understanding of the results. Course lessons covered the same text material.
7.2 Materials
Two self-report measures were used for the first iteration before and after the intervention and a third survey on
camcorder / iPad use was also used for the second iteration after the intervention (see Appendix C). The SDT survey, which was
based on Yashima et al. (2009), and a WTC survey based on Matsuoka (2005) were used for both iterations. All surveys used the
back translation method and were checked by bilingual native Japanese speakers for clarity to ensure comprehensibility for JHS
students.
7.2.1 The SDT instrument
A Japanese version of the amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation sub-scales of the Language
Learning Orientations Scale (LLOS; Noels et al., 2000) was used for this research. This instrument has been well validated and
widely used in language learning research and the results reported in the literature, in both English (Noels et al., 2000) and
Japanese (Yashima et al., 2009). The scale items present a variety of statements representing different reasons for learning English
based on the motivational orientations outlined in SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985). The instrument consists of 21 Likert-type items. The
students read each statement and rated each of them from 1 (That is not applicable to me at all) to 6 (That absolutely applies to
me). Appendix A presents the English version of the SDT survey, which includes the item level descriptive statistics and scale
level Cronbach’s alpha from the first iteration of the instruments.
7.2.2 The WTC instrument
The WTC instrument consists of three scales. These scales have been validated and used in EFL research studies in
Japan and the results reported in the literature (see Matsuoka, 2005; Author, 2012, 2014a, 2014b). The first tests for confidence
(Cronbach’s alpha = 0.94) and asks the students to rate 30 scenarios related to using English in various circumstances from 1 (I
absolutely don't think I could do that) to 6 (I think I could do that easily). The second scale tests for anxiety (Cronbach’s alpha =
0.96) and asks the students to rate the same scenarios from 1 (I would definitely not be nervous) to 6 (I'd be extremely nervous).
The third scale, for WTC (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.93), asks the respondents to rate the same scenarios from 1 (If I could, I'd run
away!) to 6 (I would absolutely want to try that!). The instrument and sub-scale reliability estimates and item descriptive statistics
are provided in Table 5. Please note that the confidence and WTC scales work in tandem, and in contrast with the anxiety scale, a
high score is ideal; for anxiety, a low score is ideal. The third survey asked a question each on confidence, anxiety, and WTC in
relation to having been recorded with either a camcorder or the iPad. Appendix B presents the English version of the WTC survey,
which includes the item level descriptive statistics from the first iteration of the instruments.
7.3 Procedures
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The surveys were both filled out in pencil during regular class time. The SDT and WTC instruments were filled out for
the first time in March, 2011. These two surveys and a third survey consisting of questions regarding the use of in-class video
were administered again in March, 2012. During their third year, each class received similar teaching methods, lesson plans and
classroom activities. However, only nine class B students were individually video-recorded with an iPad and five were able to
view their ‘performance’(i.e. PSR). The results presented in this research study are of the two classes that served as the
experimental and control groups and participated in both survey administrations.
7.4 Project outline
The fifteen-month schedule of the project can be seen in Table 1. The project proceeded as planned, except that the original plan to
use video was changed from the use of a video camcorder to an iPad. Class A had no in-class video taken; Class B students were
filmed with a camcorder and also nine of students had filming and self-viewing (PSR) with an iPad. During the months of July
and August, 2011, it became evident that the use of a digital video camera and the iMovie software for editing was simply too
time-consuming. This was due to our not using a tripod and filming the entire class of more than twenty students. As a result, the
face recognition technology was seriously bogged down. As a result, it was decided to use an iPad for the simple convenience of
using it in class to record and for instant playback. Class A had no in-class video taken; Class B had individual filming and selfviewing using an iPad. Therefore, class B is the experimental group and class A serves as the control group. The iPad video was
taken on January 18th and the PSR occurred on February 28th.
Table 1
The Research Project Schedule
Jan - Mar 2011
Apr - Jun 2011
July - Aug 2011
Jan - Feb 2012
March 2012
Activity
1. Students fill in the SDT and WTC surveys
1. Video filming in class with a camcorder
1. Video filming in class with a camcorder
1. Video filming in class and replay with an iPad
2. Students fill in the SDT, WTC & new surveys
Classes
Class A, B
Class B
Class B
Class B
Class A, B
8. Results and discussion
8.1 Changes on the SDT scales
For the purposes of this research, a decrease in amotivation, extrinsic regulation and introjected regulation is desirable.
Furthermore, an increase in identified regulation and the three intrinsic motivation sub-sections would be desirable. As can be seen
in Table 2, only class B had a decrease in amotivation, extrinsic regulation and introjected regulation. There was an increase in
both IM accomplishment and IM stimulation, while IM knowledge shows a decrease. None of the mean scores for class B after
the intervention are the highest; however, the greatest and statistically significant increase in identified regulation and IM
accomplishment occurs for class B. These results for class B are excellent. For comparison, class F shows an increase in
amotivation and a decrease in all of the six motives.
Table 2
Changes on the SDT Scales before and after the iPad Interventio n
Amotivation
External
Introjected
Regulation
Regulation
Class A
Before (n = 23)
2.26 (1.48)
2.67 (1.37) 3.04 (1.30)
After (n = 22)
2.03 (1.01)
3.20 (1.51) 3.29 (1.42)
Change
-0.23
0.53*
0.25
Class B
Before (n = 18)
2.61 (1.23)
2.74 (1.35) 3.22 (1.22)
After (n = 22)
2.43 (1.32)
2.48 (1.42) 2.65 (1.56)
Change
-0.18
-0.26
-0.57**
Identified
Regulation
Intrinsic
Knowledge
Intrinsic
Accomplish
Intrinsic
Stimulation
3.84 (1.57)
3.92 (1.38)
0.08
3.32 (1.32)
3.27 (1.49)
-0.05
3.01 (1.09)
3.17 (1.43)
0.16
3.43 (1.41)
3.20 (1.48)
-0.23
3.63 (1.19)
4.05 (1.37)
0.42
3.04 (1.10)
2.81 (1.41)
-0.23
2.57 (1.02)
3.14 (1.34)
0.57*
2.67 (1.13)
2.89 (1.26)
0.22
Note. Mean (Standard Deviation); *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
8.1.1 Changes on the WTC scales
The results of the two WTC survey iterations are compared in Table 3. As can be seen, class B shows a statistically
significant change on all three scales. Confidence has increased almost half a point, while WTC has increased by a quarter of a
point. Furthermore, anxiety has decreased by a third of a point. These results are not seen in any of the three other classes. In fact,
confidence and WTC decreased for class A, in addition to showing an increase in anxiety.
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Table 3
Changes on the Confidence, Anxiety, and WTC Scales before and after the iPad Intervention
Confidence
Anxiety
Class A
Before (n = 23)
3.21 (1.62)
3.50 (1.77)
After (n = 21)
2.96 (1.65)
4.08 (1.66)
Change
-0.25*
0.58**
Class B
Before (n = 18)
2.55 (1.46)
3.84 (1.79)
After (n = 19)
2.96 (1.87)
3.50 (1.78)
Change
0.41**
-0.34**
WTC
2.89 (1.50)
2.64 (1.66)
-0.25*
2.24 (1.31)
2.49 (1.77)
0.25*
Note. Mean (Standard Deviation); * p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
8.1.2 The SDT and WTC instrument scale correlations
A correlation analysis was performed to test for relationships between the four SDT factors, confidence, anxiety, WTC,
and the three questions corresponding to iPad use. These results are shown in Table 4. For the SDT factors, strong correlations
exist between iPad use and the extrinsic and identified regulation factor. There are strong correlations between iPad use and both
confidence and WTC; and a strong negative correlation between iPad use and anxiety. Therefore, it will be important to watch out
for multicollinearity by checking the variance inflation factor (VIF) in the structural equation models (SEM) tested (see Field,
2009).
Table 4
The Post-Intervention SDT Motives, Confidence, Anxiety, WTC, and iPad Scales Correlation Matrix for Class B
Amotiv
External
Introjected
Identified
IM
IM
IM
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Know
Accom
Stim
External Regulation
-0.55*
Introjected Reg.
-0.72*
0.80*
Identified Reg.
-0.48*
0.91*
0.91*
IM Knowledge
-0.42*
0.90*
0.83*
0.94*
IM Accomplishment
-0.27
0.61*
0.81*
0.81*
0.83*
IM Stimulation
-0.21
0.77*
0.75*
0.88*
0.94*
Confidence
Conf
Anx
0.90*
0.13
0.58*
0.22
0.50*
0.60*
0.27
0.65*
-0.44*
0.28*
0.08
-0.19
-0.30*
-0.16
-0.44*
-0.86*
WTC
0.19
0.56*
0.43*
0.67*
0.70*
0.66*
0.82*
0.80*
-0.71*
iPad
0.07
0.43*
0.12
0.33*
0.35*
0.06
0.44*
0.87*
-0.77*
Anxiety
WTC
0.65*
Note. *p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
8.2 The Results of the SDT Integrated Regulation items: Ideal L2 selves
Of particular interest are the three identified regulation sub-section items: Because I want to be a person who can speak
a foreign language is the highest ranked item based on mean score (4.09); Because I want to be a person who can speak English
(3.91); Because I think it is important for my personal development (3.45). These are the three highest ranked items, respectively.
This evidence indicates that Dörnyei’s Ideal L2 Self System may be the appropriate motivational framework within which to
interpret these results. In addition, since there are several means to stimulate student L2 Ideal Selves, the use of the factor
containing these items as a stimulus for other variables is strong.
8.3 Research questions and answers
8.3.1 Research question one and answer
The first research question asked: Will the use of the iPad to record students while speaking English increase their
motives enough to influence their WTC in English? Class B overall had a decrease in amotivation, extrinsic regulation, introjected
regulation, and IM knowledge, but an increase in identified regulation, IM accomplishment and IM stimulation. There was an
increase in both IM accomplishment and IM stimulation, while IM knowledge shows a small decrease. Based on the correlation
analysis results, we can see that strong relationships between IM accomplishment, IM stimulation, confidence, and WTC exist.
9
Furthermore, there are strong correlations between the iPad use and IM stimulation, confidence, and WTC. Somewhat weaker
correlations can be seen between iPad use, IM knowledge and the identified regulation (the Ideal L2 Self) items. A strong,
negative correlation exists between anxiety and IM stimulation, IM confidence, and WTC.
8.3.2 Research question two and answer
Research question two asks: Will the use of the iPad to record students while speaking English increase their confidence
via motives – particular their L2 Selves, leading to an increase in WTC in English? The research results show that class B had the
greatest increase in identified regulation. Only class B showed an increase in confidence and WTC, and a lower level of anxiety. It
could be interpreted that the use of video was a causal variable in this outcome.
8.4 The hypotheses and answers
8.4.1 Hypothesis one
Hypothesis 1 stated: The use of an iPad for PSR in the classroom will positively influence student intrinsic motivates,
confidence, WTC, and lower their anxiety. The students in class B report a greater increase in IM accomplishment and stimulation,
but a decrease in IM knowledge. However, they also had a statistically significant increase in identified regulation (Ideal L2
Selves. As expected based upon results reported elsewhere, a strong correlation exists between the iPad use, confidence, and WTC
(see AUTHOR, 2014). This indicates that recording students with an iPad and allowing them to view themselves speaking English
increases their confidence, which leads to a greater willingness to use English, at least in the hypothetical scenarios provided on
the WTC instrument.
8.4.2 Hypothesis two
The second hypothesis stated: The correlation analysis will show strong positive relationships between questions
regarding the iPad use, confidence, and WTC, and a negative relationship with anxiety. This hypothesis appears to be correct for
class B overall and the boys in particular, especially with regard to anxiety. The SEM results indicate that a beta weight for a given
predictor variable (Video / iPad use) is the predicted difference in the outcome variable (on WTC via confidence) in standard units
for a one standard deviation increase on the given predictor variable when all of the other predictor variables are held constant.
9. Conclusions
This study has several implications for teachers. One is that by increasing perceived competence or self-confidence and
reducing language anxiety, student WTC may increase. Creating a motivating classroom atmosphere to reduce anxiety and
working to increase student confidence may be effective in increasing WTC and therefore frequency of L2 use in general with
Japanese JHS EFL students. The use of the iPad had a direct and strong influence on confidence, which in turn had a powerful
influence on FL WTC. Therefore, using table computers such as an iPad to record students may be especially effective with
Japanese EFL students to increase their confidence and lower anxiety to use English. The author believes that future, longitudinal
studies which track student progress based on gender, orientations, WTC, confidence, anxiety, and their effort / desire to learn
English would be beneficial.
There are several limitations to the present study. First, the students in class B only had one opportunity for PSR with
the iPad. It has been suggested by others in the field that both multiple PSR opportunities followed by a survey of the students
would be of greater value in assessing the impact of PSR and student affect over an extended period of time. Second, the student
participants in this study were from a single school, and therefore the results may not be assumed to be representative of JHS
students in Japan in general. Finally, and perhaps most significantly, only male students were recorded with the iPad and engaged
in PSR. This does not allow us to make comparisons on what, if any, differences exist between male and female students at this
time. Future studies conducted on a larger scale and track students by gender would be of value to answer whether or not the use
of a tablet computer for PSR of the successful use of EFL would benefit educators in both Asia and around the world.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the students and teachers of Sairyo JHS who participated in this research project; Justin Tong for
proofreading the manuscript; and the members of JALT, as this project was made possible with the aid of a JALT Research Grant.
Any errors are the author's.
Author Biodata
AUTHOR has worked in Japan from K to graduate-level business courses at multi-national corporations. His research interests
are in the effects of technology in the classroom on motivation, orientations, WTC, and CLT (TBLT). He has a MEd from Temple
University and a JLPT Level 2 certificate.
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Appendix A
The SDT Instrument Sub-scale Cronbach’s alpha and Items’ Mean and SD (N = 140;
= 0.89)
Amotivation ( = .75)
I don't know why I must study English. Plainly speaking, I'd rather do anything other than study English.
Honestly, I don't know, I truly have the impression of wasting my time in studying English.
As for studying English, I cannot come to see why I study English.
External Regulation ( = .68)
As for studying English, I do so in order to get a more prestigious job later on.
As for studying English, I do so because I have the impression that it is expected of me.
As for studying English, I do so in order to have a better salary later on.
Introjected Regulation ( = .69)
Because I would feel ashamed if I couldn't speak to my friends from the English-speaking community in English.
Because if I can speak English, I will be aware that I am an internationally-minded person.
Because I would feel guilty if I didn't know English.
Identified Regulation ( = .75)
Because I want to be a person who can speak a foreign language.
Because I think it is important for my personal development.
Because I want to be a person who can speak English.
Intrinsic Motivation (Knowledge) ( = .81)
For the pleasure that I experience in knowing more about English literature.
For the satisfied feeling I get in finding out new things.
Because I enjoy the feeling of acquiring knowledge about the English-speaking community and their way of life.
Intrinsic Motivation (Accomplishment) ( = .81)
For the pleasure I experience when surpassing myself in my English studies.
For the enjoyment I experience when I grasp a difficult construct in English.
For the satisfaction I feel when I am in the process of accomplishing difficult exercises in English.
Intrinsic Motivation (Stimulation) ( = .83)
For the "high" I feel when hearing foreign languages spoken.
For the "high" that I experience while speaking English.
For the pleasure I get from hearing English spoken by native speakers.
13
Mean (SD)
2.76 (1.42)
2.30 (1.23)
2.18 (1.27)
2.36 (1.15)
2.76 (1.41)
2.77 (1.28)
3.00 (1.27)
2.96 (1.35)
2.58 (1.16)
4.09 (1.48)
3.45 (1.32)
3.91 (1.51)
2.97 (1.20)
3.23 (1.35)
3.11 (1.29)
3.08 (1.18)
2.98 (1.23)
2.90 (1.25)
2.95 (1.30)
2.87 (1.35)
2.80 (1.34)
Appendix B
The WTC Instrument Scales’ Cronbach’s alpha, and Items’ Mean and SD (N = 120)
Sub-section affective variable tested
(Whole sub-section Cronbach’s alpha)
1) Asking a Japanese teacher for a copy of an audio recording.
Complaining to a Japanese teacher that the speed of the listening test was too quick to
2)
catch.
Complaining to a native teacher that the speed of the listening test was too quick to
3)
catch.
4) Giving a reply for an American television program covering student life in Japan.
Making a telephone call in order to make a reservation at a hotel in English speaking
5)
country.
6) Interviewing a native English speaker for an article in the school paper.
7) Asking a pair work partner for the time now.
8) Speaking to a foreigner sitting next to you on the train.
9) Asking a native English speaking teacher the meaning of a word.
10) Making a phone call to invite a friend who can speak only English to a party.
11) Asking a native teacher for a handout given when you were absent from class.
12) Talking to your pair work partner about a TV program which you watched.
13) Stand in front of the entire class and talk about a TV program which you watched.
14) Helping a foreigner that looks troubled because he cannot read a restaurant menu.
15) Asking a foreigner for the time when you do not know it.
Help a troubled foreigner because he cannot understand what the salesclerk says at the
16)
supermarket.
Greet a group of medical professionals who came from the United States to visit your
17)
school.
In front of your class, answer a native teacher's questions about your trip during summer
18)
vacation.
Stand in front of your class and talk about your memories of your summer vacation for
19)
two minutes.
To buy a rare CD sold only overseas, call a CD store in the United States by telephone to
20)
order one.
21) Take a small number of English speaking people sightseeing in Tokyo for one day.
22) Call your host family and thank them for letting you stay with them.
23) Tell your pair-work partner in English the way to a place using a map.
24) Say five English words which start with S to your pair work partner.
25) Ask a native English speaking teacher to copy a CD.
26) Ask the meaning of a word to a Japanese teacher using classroom English.
27) Stand and tell your entire class five words using classroom English.
Talk to your pair-work partner about your memories of summer vacation for two
28)
minutes.
29) Help a foreigner who looks troubled at the station.
Participate in an English language speech contest for Japanese students. Judges are
30)
native speakers.
Confidence* Anxiety** WTC*
(0.94)
(0.96)
(0.93)
3.24 (1.36) 2.93 (1.39) 2.96 (1.29)
2.85 (1.67) 3.18 (1.58) 2.58 (1.49)
2.36 (1.36) 3.68 (1.67) 2.17 (1.16)
2.31 (1.37) 4.57 (1.59) 2.38 (1.64)
2.34 (1.36) 4.21 (1.58) 2.17 (1.22)
3.17 (1.36)
3.85 (1.70)
2.16 (1.52)
3.55 (1.47)
2.44 (1.40)
3.05 (1.45)
3.09 (1.66)
2.24 (1.33)
2.66 (1.45)
3.06 (1.60)
2.00 (1.40) 4.78 (1.61) 1.77 (1.33)
2.34 (1.37) 4.19 (1.63) 2.08 (1.26)
2.21 (1.28) 4.27 (1.71) 1.94 (1.15)
2.39 (1.40) 4.19 (1.67) 2.21 (1.30)
1.96 (1.34)
2.55 (1.36)
2.59 (1.45)
3.80 (1.68)
2.64 (1.37)
2.91 (1.35)
2.61 (1.49)
4.48 (1.65)
4.09 (1.51)
3.63 (1.53)
2.66 (1.52)
3.54 (1.58)
3.21 (1.49)
3.81 (1.67)
1.98 (1.38)
2.54 (1.39)
2.45 (1.28)
3.23 (1.54)
2.38 (1.13)
2.61 (1.15)
2.11 (1.25)
2.49 (1.40) 3.60 (1.68) 2.21 (1.32)
2.43 (1.35) 4.25 (1.61) 2.24 (1.34)
1.80 (1.24) 4.64 (1.81) 1.64 (1.16)
Additional questions on confidence, anxiety, and WTC
Were you video-recorded (with a camcorder or iPad) during English class?
If yes, please circle from 1 (no influence) to 6 (a lot of influence) for the three questions below.
14
2.71 (1.34)
3.17 (1.44)
2.09 (1.36)
3.08 (1.34)
2.34 (1.27)
2.70 (1.17)
2.68 (1.43)
1.99 (1.31)
2.54 (1.39)
2.76 (1.36)
2.61 (1.35) 3.96 (1.49) 2.58 (1.38)
Appendix C
a) Do you feel being video recorded increased your confidence to speak in English?
b) Do you feel being video recorded increased your desire to speak in English?
c) Do you feel being video recorded reduced your nervousness to speak in English?
3.62 (1.44)
2.68 (1.43)
4.24 (1.67)
3.17 (1.44)
3.69 (1.66)
3.16 (1.52)
3.07 (1.55)
4.19 (1.73)
4.06 (1.58)
3.62 (1.57)