Chapter 15: Middle
Adulthood: Physical
and
Cognitive
Development
Development Across the Lifespan
Physical Development in Middle Adulthood
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Middle adulthood is the time when most
people first become aware of the gradual
changes in their bodies that mark the aging
process.
Western society applies a double standard to
men and women in terms of appearance.
Older women tend to be viewed in
unflattering terms.
Aging men are more frequently perceived
as displaying a maturity that enhances their
status.
Height, weight and strength: The benchmarks of
Change in Middle Adulthood
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Height reaches a maximum during the 20’s for
most people, and remains stable til about age 55.
After age 55, bones become less dense and
ultimately women lose 2 inches and men lose 1
inch in height.
Women are more prone to declining height due to
OSTEOPOROSIS, a condition in which the bones
become brittle, fragile, and thin.
Osteoporosis is brought about by a lack of
calcium in the body, and lack of exercise.
(Height, weight and strength, continued)
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Both men and women continue to gain weight in
middle adulthood.
The amount of body fat increases.
Exercise and weight control can ameliorate the
weight gain.
Throughout middle adulthood, strength gradually
decreases.
This is particularly so in the back and leg muscles.
By age 60, people have lost about 10 percent of
their maximum strength.
The Senses:
The Sights & Sounds of Middle Age
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Starting at age 40, visual acuity - the ability to
discern fine spatial detail in both close and
distant objects - begins to decline.
The eye's lenses change shape and elasticity.
The lenses become less transparent, which
reduces the amount of light entering.
A nearly universal change in eyesight during
middle adulthood is the loss of
near vision, called PRESBYOPIA
The Decline of
Visual Acuity
Around age
40, the ability
to discern fine
detail begins
to drop.
Declines also occur in depth perception, distance
perception, the ability to view the world in three
dimensions, and night vision.
 Sometimes changes in vision are brought on by a
disease called GLAUCOMA, a condition where
pressure in the fluid of the eye increases, either
because the fluid cannot drain properly or because
too much fluid is produced.
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About 1 percent to 2 percent of those over 40 are
affected.
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African-Americans are particularly susceptible.
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It can be treated if caught early enough.
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If left untreated it can cause blindness.
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Hearing in Middle Age
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Hearing undergoes a gradual decline
beginning in middle adulthood.
The primary sort of loss is for sounds of
high frequency, a problem called
PRESBYCUSIS.
About 12 percent of people between 45
and 65 suffer from presbycusis.
Men are more prone to hearing loss than
women.
Hearing in Middle Age, continued
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Because the two ears are not always
equally affected by hearing loss, sound
localization, the ability to detect the origin of
a sound, is diminished.
Some hearing loss results from
environmental factors, such as loud noises.
The rest are caused by aging, which brings
a loss of hair cells in the inner ear.
Also, the ear drum becomes less elastic
with age
Reaction time in Middle Age
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Reaction time increases slightly in middle
adulthood.
This is due to a gradual loss of muscle in
the body and nervous system processing
due to aging.
People can compensate by being more
careful and practicing the skill.
Exercise can slow this loss & has other
advantages...
--Slower decline in energy molecules, muscle mass, blood supply,
speed of movement, stamina
--Slower increase in fat & muscle soreness
--Slower decline in processing central nervous system impulses
--Slower increase in variations in speed of motor neuron impulses
--Maintenance of lower levels of harmful cholesterol
--Decreased risk of high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, heart attack,
stroke
--Slower decline in bone minerals
--Decreased risk of fractures & osteoporosis
The Ongoing Sexuality of Middle Age
 Contrary to popular stereotypes, sexual activity
does not fade away for most middle age adults
 Although the frequency of sexual intercourse
decreases with age, sexual activities remain a
vital part of most middle-aged adult's lives (see
next slide for frequency rates of sexual
intercourse by age).
 With children grown and away from home,
middle-aged adults have more freedom for
sexual enjoyment.
 With menopause, women no longer
need to practice birth control.
Rates of Sexual Intercourse by Age
There are differences in the sexual experiences
of people in middle adulthood…
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Men typically need more time to get an
erection.
The volume of fluid in ejaculation declines.
The production of Testosterone (Male sex
hormone) also declines.
In women, the walls of the vagina become
less elastic and thinner and the vagina
shrinks, potentially making intercourse
painful for some women.
The Female Climacteric & Menopause
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Starting about age 45, women enter a period
known as the FEMALE CLIMACTERIC, the
transition from being able to bear children to
being unable to do so.
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This period lasts about 15 to 20 years.
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The most notable sign is MENOPAUSE, the
cessation of menstruation.
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Perimenopause may impact development
with similar symptoms (changes in
hormones beginning about 10 years prior to
menopause).
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For most women, menstrual periods become
irregular for about 2 years, starting at about age
47 or 48.
After a year goes by without a menstrual period,
menopause is said to have occurred.
The production of estrogen and progesterone
drop.
Symptoms such as "hot flashes", headaches,
feeling dizzy, heart palpitations, and aching
joints are common during menopause.
Half of women report no symptoms at all.
Symptoms of menopause differ by
race/ethnicity
Japanese & Chinese women: fewer
symptoms
 African American women: more hot
flashes & night sweats
 Hispanic women: higher level of heart
pounding & vaginal dryness
~ Reasons unclear: systematic physical
differences in hormone production levels
suspected

 Using hormone replacement therapy (HRT),
symptoms are alleviated and a variety of
problems are reduced, such as
 Osteoporosis & colon cancer
 stroke & skin elasticity
 heart disease
 There may be risks associated with HRT.
 breast cancer
 abnormal blood clots
 cancer of the uterine lining
~ Women must make their own choices about whether
the benefits of treatment outweigh the dangers.
Historically…
 It was thought that about 10 % of
women had psychological problems
associated with menopause.
 depression
 anxiety
 crying spells
 lack of concentration
 irritability
Today researchers view menopause from a different
perspective…
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It is now believed that women's
expectations about menopause relate to
their experience of menopause.
Indian women have few symptoms and look
forward to the social advantages of being
past the childbearing age.
Mayan women also have few symptoms
and look forward to the freedom of being
past childbearing age.
Men in Middle Age…
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Do men experience the equivalent of
menopause? Not really.
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Since they haven’t experienced anything
like menstruation, no similar large scale
change
~Men do experience some changes during
middle age that are collectively referred to
as the MALE CLIMACTERIC, the period of
physical and psychological change
relating to the male reproductive system
that occurs during late middle age.
Men in Middle Age, continued
 The most common is the enlargement of the
prostate gland.
 By age 40, 10 percent of men have enlarged
prostates.
 Symptoms are problems with urination, including
difficulty starting to urinate and frequent need to
urinate during the night.
 Men still produce sperm and can father children
through middle age.
Health in Middle Age
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Health concerns become increasingly
important to people during middle adulthood.
The vast majority of people in middle age face
no chronic health difficulties and have fewer
accidents and infections because they are
more careful and have built up immunities
over their life.
Despite this, surveys show that health issues
are a major concern to middle aged adults…
The Worries
of Adulthood
Health
worries
outnumber
financial
worries in
middle
adulthood.
Health in Middle Age, continued
 Some adults, however, are particularly
susceptible to chronic diseases in middle
adulthood.
 Arthritis typically begins after age 40.
 Diabetes is most likely to occur in
people between the ages of 50 and 60.
 Hypertension (high blood pressure)
is one of the most frequent chronic
disorders found in middle age
Health in Middle Age, continued
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The death rate for people between
40 and 60 has declined
dramatically; it is less than half of
what it was in 1940.
Some people are genetically
susceptible to chronic diseases,
such as hypertension.
Ethnic Variations in Health
 Social and environmental factors are related to
health: African-Americans in the U.S. have twice
the death rate of Caucasians.
 Related to SES (socioeconomic status): When
death rates are compared for Whites and AfricanAmericans of the same SES, African-Americans'
death rate drops below Whites'.
 Poorer people are more apt to experience a
disabling illness.
 Poorer people tend to work in more dangerous
occupations & are more likely to become
disabled.
Disability & Income Level
Workers living in poverty are more likely to become disabled
than those with higher income levels. Why?
Gender differences in Health
 During middle age, women experience more
non-life threatening illnesses than men but
men experience more serious illnesses.
 Women smoke less.
 Women drink less alcohol.
 Women have less dangerous jobs.
 Medical research has typically studied
diseases of men with all male samples; the
medical community is only now beginning to
study women's health issues.
Stress in Middle Adulthood
 Stress continues to significantly impact
health during middle adulthood
 Stressors themselves may be different
 Psychoneuroimmunologists: study the
relationships between the brain, immune
system, and psychological factors
connected to stress
 3 main consequences…
The 3 Main Consequences of Stress
The ABC’s of Heart Disease in Middle
Adulthood
More men die in middle age of diseases of
the heart and circulatory system than any
other cause.
Both genetic and experiential
characteristics are involved.
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Heart disease runs in families.
Men are more likely to suffer than women, and
risks increase with age.
Death From Heart Disease Worldwide
According to the American College of Sports Medicine
and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
every adult should get at least 30 minutes of
moderate-intensity physical activity daily.
 walking
 gardening
 climbing stairs
 reduces risk of heart disease,
osteoporosis, weight gain, and hypertension
 psychological benefits of sense of control and
well-being
Heart disease, continued
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There are several environmental and
behavioral risk factors that for heart
disease.
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cigarette smoking
high fat and cholesterol in diet
lack of physical exercise
The Type A’s and Type B’s
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Evidence suggests that some
psychological factors are also
related to heart disease.
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People with TYPE A BEHAVIOR
PATTERN, which is characterized by
competitiveness, impatience, and a
tendency toward frustration and
hostility, are more susceptible to
heart disease.
(type A behavior, continued)
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They engage in polyphasic activities multiple activities carried out
simultaneously.
They are easily angered and become
verbally and nonverbally hostile if prevented
from reaching their goals.
Heart rate and blood pressure rise,
epinephrine and norepinephrine increase.
Wear and tear on heart produces disease.
(type A behavior, continued)
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Evidence is only correlational so we
cannot say Type A behavior causes heart
disease.
Most experts now say it is the negative
emotion and hostility that are the major
links to heart disease.
Most research has been done on men;
we need to research women to see if
Type A women are equally susceptible.
Type B’s and heart attack risk
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By contrast, people with TYPE B
BEHAVIOR PATTERN, which is
characterized by
noncompetitiveness, patience, and
a lack of aggression, have less
than half the risk of coronary
disease that Type A people have.
~ Not all type A’s are destined to suffer
heart disease!
~ Can learn to behave differently
The Threat of Cancer in Middle Adulthood…
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Cancer is the second leading
cause of death in middle age.
Many forms of cancer respond
well to treatment.
40 % are still alive 5 years
after diagnosis.
Cancer is unchecked cell
growth.
Cancer in Middle Adulthood, continued
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Cancer is associated with several risk
factors.
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Genetics (family history of cancer) raises
the risk.
Poor nutrition, smoking, alcohol use,
exposure to sunlight, exposure to
radiation, and exposure to occupational
hazards such as certain chemicals raises
the risk
Cancer, continued
Treatment of cancer can take a
variety of forms.
 Radiation therapy involves the
use of radiation to destroy a
tumor.
 Chemotherapy involves the
controlled ingestion of toxic
substances meant to poison the
tumor.
 Surgery may be used to remove
the tumor.
Early diagnosis of cancer is crucial.
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The earlier that breast cancer is diagnosed, the
better a woman’s chance of survival
Mammography, a weak X-ray, is used
to detect breast cancer.
Women over 50 should routinely have one.
Younger women have denser breasts and the
problem of false positives increases, which is
one reason younger women are not
encouraged to have testing done.
Critical Thinking…
Mammograms are
expensive ($100. on
average), although
prostate exams for men
are not—What might this
say about the medical
community’s value of
women’s lives?
Psychological Factors Related to Cancer
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Increasing evidence suggests that cancer is
related to psychological factors, also.
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The death rate of women with breast
cancer was much lower for those who
had a "fighting spirit" or those who denied
they had the disease.
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People with close family ties are less
likely to develop cancer.
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Cancer patients who are habitually
optimistic report less physical and
psychological distress.
Psychological Factors Related to Cancer,
continued
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Participating in group therapy reduces
anxiety and pain and increases survival
rates.
A positive psychological
outlook may be related to
a tendency to adhere to a strict
treatment regimen.
A positive psychological outlook may
boost the body's immune system…
Cognitive Development
Does intelligence decline with age?
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Cross-sectional studies - which test
people of different ages at the same
point in time - clearly showed that older
subjects scored less well than younger
subjects on traditional IQ tests.
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Intelligence peaks at 18,
stays steady until mid-20s,
and declines till end of life.
Cognitive Development, continued
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These studies suffer from the cohort
effect - influences associated with
growing up at a particular historical time
that affect people of a particular age.
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may be less educated
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may have less stimulation on job
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may have poorer health
Cross-sectional studies may
underestimate intelligence in older
subjects.
Cognitive Development, continued
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Longitudinal studies, in which the
same people are studied periodically
over a span of time, revealed
different developmental patterns in
intelligence.
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Adults showed stable and even
increasing IQ scores until mid-30s and
some to mid-50s, then declined.
Longitudinal studies, continued
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Because of repeated testing, some people
remember some of the test items, called the
practice effect.
People become more comfortable and
relaxed after repeated testing.
Subjects leave or die during time span;
those who remain may be healthier, more
stable, and psychologically more positive
than the people who dropped out.
Longitudinal studies may overestimate the
intelligence of older people.
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Results of assessments of
intelligence are complicated by the
fact that many IQ tests include a
physical performance portion.
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These are timed.
Reaction time slows with age.
Results may be due to physical
changes not cognitive changes
Crystallized & Fluid Intelligence
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Many researchers believe there are
two kinds of intelligence.
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FLUID INTELLIGENCE is the ability to
deal with new problems and situations.
Fluid intelligence is inductive
reasoning, spatial orientation,
perceptual speed, and verbal memory.
Fluid intelligence does decline with
age.
(Crystallized & Fluid Intelligence, continued)
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CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE is the store of
information, skills, and strategies that people
have acquired through education and prior
experiences, and through their previous use of
fluid intelligence.
Crystallized intelligence includes numerical
and verbal abilities, such as solving a
crossword puzzle or a mathematical problem.
Crystallized intelligence holds steady or
increases with age.
Changes in Crystallized & Fluid Intelligence
(crystallized intelligence)
(fluid intelligence)
Competence during middle adulthood:
Reframing the issue
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Even though scores on IQ tests
decline with age, middle-aged
people show no decline in general
cognitive competence.
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Traditional tests may not tap into
practical intelligence.
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Highly successful middle-aged people
may not be representative of all middleaged people.
(Competence during middle adulthood:
Reframing the issue, continued)
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Professional success may not rely
exclusively on cognitive ability.
Older, successful people may have
developed expertise in their particular
occupational area or SELECTIVE
OPTIMIZATION, the process by which
people concentrate on particular skill
areas to compensate for losses in other
areas.
Memory in Middle Adulthood
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According to research on memory
changes in adulthood, most people
show only minimal losses, and many
exhibit no memory loss in middle
adulthood.
Memory is viewed in terms of three
sequential components…
Memory in middle adulthood, continued
Sensory memory is an initial, momentary storage of
information that lasts only an instant.
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No decline in middle age.
 Short-term memory holds information for 15 to 25
seconds.
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No decline in middle age.
 Long-term memory holds information that is
rehearsed for a relatively permanent time.
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Some decline in middle age.
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storage is less efficient
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a reduction in efficiency of memory retrieval
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Memory Schemas
 We recall information through use of
SCHEMAS, organized bodies of information
stored in memory.
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Schemas allow people to organize,
categorize, and interpret new information.
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Schemas allow people to organize their life
into coherent wholes and interpret social
events.
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Material that is consistent with existing
schemas is more likely to be recalled than
material that is inconsistent.
MNEMONICS are formal strategies for
organizing material in ways that make it
more likely to be remembered.
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Method of loci is mentally associating material
to be recalled with a particular location in a
well-known building.
Mnemonics, continued
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Encoding specificity phenomenon is the principle
that people are most likely to recall information in
environments that are similar to those in which
the information was initially learned.
The keyword technique is when the learner forms
a mental picture of something and connects it to
something to be remembered.
Rehearsal is the idea that practice makes perfect.
In short…
People’s previous experiences within the context
of a particular culture allow the construction of
schemas in memory as tools for interpreting new
encounters
 Schemas, in turn, allow people to comprehend &
interpret new encounters
 Memory schemas influence people’s recall of
new information
 Material that is consistent with schemas is more
likely to be recalled.
~Overall, cognitive development in middle
adulthood continues!
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 Remember to keep up with your
reading!
 Check out the “Strategies for
Remembering” box in your text!