Motivation and Emotion
Did You Know That?
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The founding father of American psychology believed that there is a
human instinct for cleanliness.
According to a leading psychological theory, if you had to wait in line
for hours to purchase tickets for a concert, you would probably rate
the event as more enjoyable that you would if the tickets had been
easy to come by.
A researcher once swallowed a balloon to test the theory that
stomach contractions signal hunger.
The adult weight of people who were adopted as babies is closer to
the weight of their biological parents that to the weight of the parents
who raise them.
Obese people typically have more fat cells than people of normal
weight have.
There is no emotion center in the brain
Responding without thinking can be a lifesaver in some situations.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
?Questions?
 Why does Lucho play football so
intensely?
 Why do people try to climb Mount
Everest or cross the Atlantic in a
balloon?
 Why are some people obsessed
with fantasy football or
baseball…while others cannot tell
you the difference between the
Panthers and the Braves?
 Why do fools fall in love?
Motivation and Emotion
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Motive
Specific need or desire, such as hunger,
thirst, or achievement,
 The urge to move towards one’s goals, to
accomplish tasks
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Emotion
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Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that
underlies behavior
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Motivation
 Motivation: An internal state that activates
behavior and directs it towards a goal.
 Meaning:
 In other words, motivation includes various
psychological factors that cause you to act a
certain way at a certain time.
 The words anger, fear, pain, starving, etc…can
all trigger certain motivations within your body.
 So how do psychologists attempt to explain
these things?
Instincts
Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is
characteristic of an entire species
 Human behavior is not easily explained by
instincts because
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Most important human behavior is learned
 Human behavior is rarely inflexible
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Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Instinct Theory
 In the 1900’s, William McDougall (1908)
proposed that humans were driven by a
variety of instincts.
 Instincts: Are natural or inherited
tendencies of an organism to make a
specific response to certain environmental
stimuli without involving reason.
 For example, salmon have an instinctive
urge to swim thousands of miles through
ocean waters and up rivers until they
reach the exact gravel spot where they
were spawned years earlier. They then
lay their eggs and die.
Instinct Theory
Psychologist William James proposed that
humans have instincts such as
cleanliness, curiosity, parental love,
sociability, and sympathy.
Eventually, psychologists realized a flaw in
the Instinct Theory.
Instincts do not explain behavior; they simply
label behavior.
Drive-Reduction Theory
 Something that motivates us
moves us to an action.
 The thing that motivates us starts
with a need that leads to a drive.
 Need: Biological or
psychological requirement of an
organism.
 A need results from a lack of
something that is desirable or
useful.
 We have both physiological and
psychological needs.
Drive-Reduction Theory
 Every need produces a
drive.
 Drive: A state of tension
produced by a need that
motivates an organism
towards a goal.
 We all have different
drives with different goals!
 For example, hunger
drives us to eat and
fatigue drives us to rest.
Drive – Reduction Theory
Drive-Reduction Theory: When an
organism is deprived of something it
needs or wants (such as food or water), it
becomes tense and agitated. To relieve
this tension, it engages in more or less
random activity. So, biological needs
“drive” an organism to act, and the
organism strives to maintain homeostasis.
Homeostasis: The tendency of all
organisms to correct imbalances and
deviations from their normal state.
The Incentive Theory
 The drive-reduction theory of
motivation emphasizes the internal
states of the organism; however,
the incentive theory stresses the
role of the environment in
motivating behavior.
 While a drive is something inside of
us that causes us to act, our actions
are directed towards a goal, or an
incentive.
 Incentive: An external stimulus,
reinforcer, or reward, that motivates
behavior.
The Incentive Theory
 While drives push us to
reduce needs, incentives
pull us to obtain them.
 For example, hunger may
cause us to walk into a
cafeteria, but the
incentive for our action is
the sandwich we hope to
eat.
 What is another example
of the Incentive Theory?
Cognitive Theory
 Cognitive Psychologists seek to explain
motivation by looking at forces inside and
outside of us that energize us to move.
 They propose that we act in particular ways at
particular times as a result of extrinsic and
intrinsic motivations.
 Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities that
either reduce biological needs or help us obtain
external incentives.
 Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities
because they are personally rewarding or
because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations.
Incentives
External stimuli that prompt goal-directed
behavior
 We are often unaware of the incentive
 Examples
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Aroma of food may cause us to eat even
when not hungry
 Advertisements can lead us to buy a product
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Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
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Intrinsic motivation
Motivation for a behavior is the behavior itself
 Children playing is an example
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Extrinsic motivation
Behavior is performed in order to obtain a
reward or to avoid punishment
 A bonus program is an example
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Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Cognitive Theory Example
 Example: If you spend hours and
hours playing basketball because
you wish to excel at the sport,
you are following intrinsic
motivation!
 Example: If you hours playing
basketball because your parents
want you to excel at basketball,
you are following extrinsic
motivation.
Biological Motives
Hunger – What motivates you to seek
food? Often you eat because of the sight
and smell of, say, pizza makes you want
to go to a restaurant.
At other times you eat because of habit.
For example, if you always eat at 8pm,
you become hungry every day around
8pm.
Water, Air, etc.
Hunger
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Biological Factors
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Hunger appears to be regulated by
regions in the hypothalamus
Lateral hypothalamus acts as a feeding
center, triggering the onset of eating
 Ventromedial hypothalamus acts as a satiety
center, stopping eating behavior
 Paraventricular nucleus influences the drive to
eat specific foods
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In addition, areas in cortex and spinal cord
also play a role
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Biological Factors
Changes in blood glucose level, fats,
carbohydrates, and insulin signal need for
food
 Leptin, a hormone released by fat cells,
can signal satiety
 Receptors in the stomach and a hormone
released by small intestine also signal
brain about satiety
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Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Cultural and Environmental Factors
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Responses to food are governed by
learning and social conditioning
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For example, time of day can trigger the body
to become hungry
Culture also influences what we choose to
eat and how much we consume
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Eating Disorders
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Anorexia nervosa
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Intense fear of weight gain
Distorted body image
Refusal to maintain minimal normal body weight
Absence of at least three consecutive menstrual
cycles (for women)
About 1% of adolescents afflicted
Approximately 90% of those are white upperand middle-class females
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Eating Disorders
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Bulimia nervosa
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Recurrent episodes of binge eating
Recurrent behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as
self-induced vomiting
Behaviors must occur at least twice a week for three
months
Body shape and weight overly influence self-image
Symptoms occur independent of anorexia
About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are the
most common eating disorders in more affluent
nations
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Obesity
Considered by U.S. Surgeon General to
be the most pressing health problem today
 Obesity can lead to increased risk for
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Hypertension
 Cardiovascular disease
 Diabetes
 Sleep apnea
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Tendency may be inherited
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Thirst
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Thirst
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Both internal and external cues can trigger
the thirst drive
Internal cues include level of fluids inside
body cells and amount of fluids outside body
cells
 External cues can include advertisements and
weather conditions
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Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Social Motives
 Measuring need
based solely on
achievement.
 I need the approval of
certain people or
groups.
 Fear of Failure
 Fear of Success
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 According to Abraham Maslow, there are 3 basic
types of needs:
 Fundamental Needs: Biological drives that must
be satisfied to maintain life.
 Psychological needs: The urge to belong and
give and receive love, and the urge to acquire
esteem.
 Self-Actualization Needs: The pursuit of
knowledge and beauty or whatever is required
for the realization of one’s unique potential.
Emotions
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Basic Emotions
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Plutchik proposed that there are eight
basic emotions
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Fear
Surprise
Sadness
Disgust
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Anger
Anticipation
Joy
Acceptance
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Plutchik’s Basic Emotions
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Basic Emotions
Some have criticized Plutchik’s model as
applying only to English-speakers
 Revised model of basic emotions includes:
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Happiness
 Surprise
 Sadness
 Fear
 Disgust
 Anger
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Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Theories of Emotion
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James-Lange theory
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Cannon-Bard theory
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Environmental stimuli bring on physiological
changes that we interpret as emotions
Environmental stimuli elicit emotions and
bodily responses simultaneously
Cognitive theory
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Environment gives us clues that help us
interpret physiological reaction
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Theories of Emotion
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Nonverbal Communication of
Emotion
Voice quality
 Facial expression
 Body language
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Posture and the way we move communicates
information
Personal space
 Explicit acts
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For example, slamming doors
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Emotions
 What drives Michael Jordan to perfect his
basketball game? How did he feel when he hit
all of those winning shots? Was he tired, thirsty,
excited, nervous, or happy?
 It is very difficult to draw a clear line between
motives and Emotions.
 So what are the differences?
 Well, let’s take a look shall we.
Emotion
 Emotion: A set of
complex reactions to
stimuli involving
subjective feelings,
physiological arousal,
and observable
behavior.
 See Page 329 in your
text for a chart of the
full range of emotions.
James – Lange Theory
Both William James and Carl Lange came
to the conclusion at about the same time
that “we use the word emotion to describe
our visceral, or gut, reactions to the things
that take place around us.
Because they came up with this theory at
the same time, it was named the JamesLange Theory.
The Cannon – Bard Theory
 The Cannon – Bard Theory: According to this
theory, certain experiences activate the
thalamus, and the thalamus sends messages to
the cortex and to the other body organs.
 The theory states that the brain sends two
reactions – arousal and the experience of
emotion. Yet, one does not cause the other.
 So, when we use the word emotion, we are
referring to the simultaneous burst of activity in
the brain and gut reactions.
More about the various Theories
See Text Page 335 for more info!
Arousal Theory
People are motivated to seek an optimal
level of arousal for a given moment
 Yerkes-Dodson law
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States that there is an optimal level or arousal
for best performance on any task
 The more complex the task, the lower the
level of arousal that can be tolerated without
interfering with performance
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Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sexual Motivation
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Biological Factors
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Testosterone
Important in both men and women in early
development
 Not very important for regulating sexual
activity in humans
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Pheromones
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Scents secreted which can promote sexual
readiness, particularly in animals
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Cultural and Environmental Factors
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Human sexual motivation is much more
dependent on experience and learning
than on biology
Men are very responsive to visual stimuli
 Women respond better to touch
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Culture can influence what is sexually
attractive
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Human Sexual Response Cycle
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Excitement
Plateau
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Orgasm
Resolution
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sexual Orientation
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Refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual
interest
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Heterosexual
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Homosexual
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Sexual attraction to same gender
Bisexual
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Sexual attraction to other gender
Sexual attraction to both genders
Examination of causes of differing orientations is
a nature-nurture debate
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Other Motives
Exploration and curiosity
 Manipulation and contact
 Aggression
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Intent is a key element of aggression
 Aggressive behavior may be innate, although
learning clearly plays a role
 Aggression and culture
 Gender and aggression
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 Males
are more physically aggressive
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Other Motives
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Achievement
Motivation to excel at a task
 Desire is for achievement for its own sake
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Affiliation
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Motivation to be with others
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Gender, Culture and
Emotion
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Gender and Emotion
Men and women feel emotions equally,
but express them differently
 Men and women may experience different
emotions in the same situation
 Anger
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Men tend to direct their anger outward
 Women tend to direct their anger inward
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Women are more skilled at understanding
nonverbal components of emotion
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Culture and Emotion
Expression of emotion can be influenced
by cultural norms
 Some emotional displays are universal
 Display rules
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Culture-specific rules that govern how, when,
and why expressions of emotion are
appropriate
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall