Running head: PARENTAL DEPRESSION
Parental Depression and its Effects on Childhood Development
Cassandra Martinez Fullmer
Salt Lake Community College
1
PARENTAL DEPRESSION
2
Parental Depression and its Effects on Childhood Development
Introduction
Depression has impacted millions of Americans. Research and the development of the
field of Psychology has provided more answers as to how to deal with this disability. It is said
that at least one in five children in the United States lives in a household with at least one parent
showing symptoms of depression. Even more specifically, about 13% of women experience
depression after childbirth and about 5-10% of fathers. (Ramchandani, et al., 2011)
Background
There has been a substantial amount of research in regards to maternal depression and the
effects of that, and most recently there have been findings and additional research being done on
the effects of fathers having depression. The focus of my research is on childhood development
and research focusing on the first few months after birth up until about 5 years of age. It has
come to my attention being someone who has been affected by this and in turn, may become a
disabilitating part of my future children’s development if left untreated. There have been findings
in the development in children having been hindered by the ability of the parents to provide
parental care because of the disabilitating effects of depression. These reports and findings are
calling for more attention in examining mothers and treating them (Huang, Costeines, Kaufman,
& Ayala, 2013).
The definition for depression used here includes symptoms of low mood, irritability, and
feelings of hopelessness (Ramchandani, Stein, Evans, & O'Connor, 2005). An example of what a
questionnaire might have sounded like in some of these studies had to do with responding to a
PARENTAL DEPRESSION
3
number of questions such as, “In the past 30 days, how often did you feel so sad; that nothing
could cheer you up, nervous, or that everything was an effort” (Child Trends, 2014).
Symptoms of Postpartum Depression
Many factors play into the level of depression and ability to care for a child. Many
mothers experience traumatic stress, marital stress, etc. Symptoms of postpartum depression
can interfere with the care of a child. These symptoms can keep a mother or caregiver from
providing the basic needs a baby needs. According to the Mayo Clinic website, they include
several symptoms to recognize postpartum depression.
o Loss of appetite
o Insomnia
o Intense irritability and anger
o Overwhelming fatigue
o Loss of interest in sex
o Lack of joy in life
o Feelings of shame, guilt or inadequacy
o Severe mood swings
o Difficulty bonding with your baby
o Withdrawal from family and friends
o Thoughts of harming yourself or your baby
(Mayo Clinic Staff, 1998-2015)
PARENTAL DEPRESSION
4
One study conducted looked into postpartum disorder as it also having three different
disorders within itself including, postpartum blues, postpartum psychosis and postpartum
depression. Post partum blues do not last very long and do not have very negative effects, post
partum psychosis may include hallucinations and inability to function while postpartum
depression is your basic depressive symptoms (Canadian Paediatric Society, 2004). The
differences between these can be very significant. For example, post partum blues or “baby
blues” will only last a few days to a few weeks and include symptoms such as; mood swings,
anxiety, sadness, irritability, crying, decreased concentration, and trouble sleeping (Mayo Clinic
Staff, 1998-2015). Post partum psychosis is the most severe of the three including symptoms of
confusion and disorientation, hallucinations and delusions, paranoia, and attempts to harm
yourself or your baby (Mayo Clinic Staff, 1998-2015). With so many reports of women harming
their children in the news lately, I was particularly drawn and interested in these symptoms and
what can be done to help mothers overcome these feelings. With that being said, there has been
strong correlations between mothers experiencing postpartum depression and negative
developmental observations in children beginning in infancy all the way to “school age”
(Canadian Paediatric Society, 2004).
Child Development
There were effects in behavioral and cognitive development in children, which included;
anger, passivity, and general lower cognitive performance. In toddlers, some effects in
development included internalizing and externalizing problems, lower interaction, and less
creative play (Canadian Paediatric Society, 2004). And so on and so forth, effects of maternal
depression increase in number as the child matures and advances through school.
PARENTAL DEPRESSION
5
A study conducted on infants tested their ability to socially interact. This study discussed
the basic abilities of a child to interact and to withdraw when needed. For example; when tired or
overwhelmed. But they should have no problem entering a social situation there after. Children
who have problems with withdrawing and not having the social skills to interact with others,
even at as young of an age as 9months old, has a correlation to being affected by their mothers
depression. This same study found “social withdrawal is a key symptom of infant depression, but
also an important feature of other conditions such as failure to thrive, malnutrition, pain,
attachment disorders, relationship disorders, posttraumatic stress disorders, and autism.”
(Braarud, et al., 2013).
Sex Differences
There have been findings that sex is a determining factor in how much a childe is actually
affected. Boys are usually more sensitive to depression in mothers according to findings in lower
levels of “intellectual attainment” (Canadian Paediatric Society, 2004). Another study showed
boys were also greatly affected by paternal depression (Ramchandani, Stein, Evans, & O'Connor,
2005).
Low Income Families
Low-income families tend to have greater amounts of depressive symptoms. As stated in
a study done on women found that many factors including; “low-income, low education level,
and young age at time of birth.” These factors showed a strong correlation to mothers with
postpartum depression. (Hutto, Goodwin-Kim, Pollard, & Kemppainen, 2011)
PARENTAL DEPRESSION
6
Low-income mothers with depression tend to have more of and effect on school readiness
of children. (Knitzer, Theberge, & Johnson, 2008). This piece of research was reveling in the fact
that maternal depression has to be addressed in order to have a better outcome and chance for
children to develop normally. The likelihood of depression affecting low-income women
doubles to 25% understandably, there are many more factors being brought in to a household that
suffers from poverty or other income problems having to do with domestic violence, drugs, etc.
(Knitzer, Theberge, & Johnson, 2008). There are more and more children not being ready to
enter school, especially in low-income homes.
Treatment
It is believed that if mothers are treated, there is a less likely risk depression will affect
the child (Child Trends, 2014). There are many programs that are able to provide help for
mothers. There are also many programs and support for mothers and families who are affected
by depression. There are “interventions” which can provide help controlling a mother’s mood,
increasing her sensitivity to or awareness of the baby’s needs and improve the relationship
between the child and the mother. Many interventions and treatments are fit to the specific
family and situation (Canadian Paediatric Society, 2004).
I have personally spoken to a mediator that specialized in this sort of therapy. She would
visit homes and interact with the family. She would let the family go among their day and coach
the mother as they went on. She gave advice on the vocabulary used to address the children and
how to tend to the children when they needed the basic necessities such as a diaper needing to be
changed, a new shirt to replaced the one stained, cleaning the child’s face and so on. There are
different situations and approaches depending on the age of the children and the severity of the
PARENTAL DEPRESSION
7
living conditions, but in the end, they provided a positive beginning to providing education and
training for the mother to prepare her children psychologically. Other doctors and researchers
have found this treatment to have positive outcomes. “They provide support, practical advice and
education, and reinforcement of good parenting practices” (Canadian Paediatric Society, 2004).
Daycare has been another factor in the ability for children to develop well. In the study
mentioned in the previous paragraph, free daycare was provided in addition to the “guidance
treatment.” In another study, suggested that even one half of a day per week can do much good
in a child (Child Trends, 2014). Daycare helps in limiting behavioral problems in children and if
I may add myself, gives mothers a bit of a “break.” Having worked with mothers and
grandmothers this past year, many have stated over and over again how necessary their job was
to their well being. They enjoyed coming to work to get a break and have some time to
themselves. In turn, children get a chance to interact with their caregivers in daycare or in school
allowing them to practice and develop their social skills.
Conclusion
There is continuing research being done in order to help lessen the negative effects of
parental depression. There are studies being done in different countries all over the world and I
hope these efforts help better understand the best way to treat women and men all over the world.
The children and the future generations depend on these findings to have a better chance at
growing and learning. I hope more and more, depression and how it can really affect a child, can
be more published and become more widespread.
PARENTAL DEPRESSION
8
References
Braarud, H. C., Slinning, K., Smith, L., Moe, V., Vannebo, U. T., Geudeney, A., et al. (2013).
Relation Between Social Withdrawl Symptoms In Full-Term and Premature Infants and
Depressice Symptoms In Mothers: A Longitudinal Study. Infant Mental Health Journal .
Canadian Paediatric Society. (2004). Maternal depression and child development. Paediatrics
and Child Health .
Child Trends. (2014). Child Trends Databank. Retrieved March 12, 2015, from
www.childtrends.org: http://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=parental-depression
Huang, C. Y., Costeines, J., Kaufman, J. S., & Ayala, C. (2013). Parenting Stress, Social
Support, and Depression for Ethnic Minority Adolescent Mothers: Impact on Child
Development. Springer .
Hutto, H. F., Goodwin-Kim, Y., Pollard, D., & Kemppainen, J. (2011). Post-Partum Depression
Among White, African American, and Hispanic Low-Income Mothers in Rural
Southeastern North Carolina. Journal of Community Health Nursing .
Knitzer, J., Theberge, S., & Johnson, K. (2008). Reducing Maternal Depression and Its Impact
on Young Children. National Center for Children in Poverty .
Mayo Clinic Staff. (1998-2015). Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2015, from Mayo Clinic:
www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/postpartum-depression/basics/symptoms/con20029130
Ramchandani, P. G., Psychogiou, L., Vlachos, H., Iles, J., Sethna, V., Netsi, E., et al. (2011).
Paternal Depression: An Examination of its links with Father, Child and Family
Functioning in the Postnatal Period. Depression and Anxiety .
Ramchandani, P., Stein, A., Evans, J., & O'Connor, T. G. (2005). Paternal depression in the
postnatal period and child development: a prospective population study. The Lancet .