Chemistry of Life
Levels of Chemical Organization
Atoms
• Nucleus- central core of atom
– Proton- +charged particle in nucleus
– Neutron- non-charged particle in nucleus
– Atomic number- number of protons in the
nucleus; determines the type of atom
– Atomic mass- number of protons and
neutrons combined
Levels of Chemical Organization
Atoms
• Energy levels- regions surrounding atomic
nucleus that contain electrons
– Electron- negatively charged particle
– May contain up to eight electrons per level
– Energy increases with distance from nucleus
• An ELECTRON’S ENERGY LEVEL is the
amount of energy required by an electron
to stay in orbit. Just by the electron’s
motion alone, it has kinetic energy. The
electron’s position in reference to the
nucleus gives it potential energy.
• An energy balance keeps the electron in
orbit and as it gains or loses energy, it
assumes an orbit further from or closer to
the center of the atom. SHELLS and
SUBSHELLS are the orbits of the
electrons in an atom.
• Shells are lettered K through Q, starting with K,
which is the closest to the nucleus. The shell
can also be split into four subshells labeled s,
p, d, and f, which can contain 2, 6, 10, and 14
electrons, respectively.
Elements, molecules, and
compounds
• Element- a pure substance, made up of
only one kind of atom
• Molecule- a group of atoms bound
together in a group
• Compound- substances whose molecules
have more than one kind of atom
Elements
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Co Cobalt
Cn Copernicium
Cr Chromium
Cs Cesium
Cu Copper
Db Dubnium
Ds Darmstadtium
Dy Dysprosium
Er Erbium
Es Einsteinium
Eu Europium
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F Fluorine
Fe Iron
Fm Fermium
Fr Francium
Ga Gallium
Gd Gadolinium
Ge Germanium
H Hydrogen
He Helium
Hf Hafnium
Hg Mercury
Elements
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Ac Actinium
Ag Silver
Al Aluminum
Am Americium
Ar Argon
As Arsenic
At Astatine
Au Gold
B Boron
Ba Barium
Be Beryllium
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Bh Bohrium
Bi Bismuth
Bk Berkelium
Br Bromine
C Carbon
Ca Calcium
Cd Cadmium
Ce Cerium
Cf Californium
Cl Chlorine
Cm Curium
Elements
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Ho Holmium
Hs Hassium
I Iodine
In Indium
Ir Iridium
K Potassium
Kr Krypton
La Lanthanum
Li Lithium
Lr Lawrencium
Lu Lutetium
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Md Mendelevium
Mg Magnesium
Mn Manganese
Mo Molybdenum
Mt Meitnerium
N Nitrogen
Na Sodium
Nb Niobium
Nd Neodymium
Ne Neon
Ni Nickel
Elements
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No Nobelium
Np Neptunium
O Oxygen
Os Osmium
P Phosphorus
Pa Protactinium
Pb Lead
Pd Palladium
Pm Promethium
Po Polonium
Pr Praseodymium
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Pt Platinum
Pu Plutonium
Ra Radium
Rb Rubidium
Re Rhenium
Rf Rutherfordium
Rg Roentgenium
Rh Rhodium
Rn Radon
Ru Ruthenium
S Sulfur
Elements
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Sb Antimony
Sc Scandium
Se Selenium
Sg Seaborgium
Si Silicon
Sm Samarium
Sn Tin
Sr Strontium
Ta Tantalum
Tb Terbium
Tc Technetium
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Te Tellurium
Th Thorium
Ti Titanium
Tl Thallium
Tm Thulium
U Uranium
Uuh Ununhexium
Uun Ununnilium
Uuo Ununoctium
Uup Ununpentium
Uuq Ununquadium
Elements
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Uus Ununseptium
Uut Ununtrium
Uuu Ununumium
V Vanadium
W Tungsten
Xe Xenon
Y Yttrium
Yb Ytterbium
Zn Zinc
Zr Zirconium
Chemical Elements of the Human
Body
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Oxygen
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Calcium
Phosphorus
Elements Crucial to Human Health
• Chemical elements are crucial to our
health. Although there are more in the
body, these are the elements that we can
most quickly impact in a positive way.
The Elements (based on an
average 160-pound man)
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Element
Weight
Oxygen
90 pounds
Carbon
36 pounds
Hydrogen
14 pounds
Calcium
3 pounds 12 ounces
Nitrogen
3 pounds 8 ounces
Phosphorus
1 pound 4 ounces
Chlorine
4 ounces
Sulphur
3 ½ ounces
Potassium
3 ounces
Sodium
2 ½ ounces
Fluorine
2 ounces
Magnesium
1 ½ ounces
Silicon
¼ ounce
Iron 1/6 ounce
Iodine
Trace
Manganese
Trace
Calcium- The Knitter
• Calcium Ca+(1.5%) is the most common mineral in the human body
— nearly all of it found in bones and teeth. Ironically, calcium's most
important role is in bodily functions, such as muscle contraction and
protein regulation. In fact, the body will actually pull calcium from
bones (causing problems like osteoporosis) if there's not enough of
the element in a person's diet.
Calcium is an alkaline, positive mineral that attracts oxygen. It must
undergo an evolution to travel from rock form to a form that can be
assimilated by the human body. It is through vegetable and animal
form and their mineral content that calcium is converted to blood and
bone.
• In the body, it aids digestion, nutrition and neutralization. Calcium
promotes good growth, vitality and vigor by helping to regulate
metabolism. It also causes coagulation of the blood and thus aids in
clotting for healthy healing
Calcium- The Knitter
• Symptoms on the skin of calcium deficiency are itchy skin, wrinkles
and burns that heal poorly or slowly. Calcium can aid in conditions of
rosacea, acne, psoriasis, impetigo (a very contagious infection of the
skin; common in children; localized redness develops into small
blisters that gradually crust and erode), prurigo (eruption of pale,
dome-shaped papules that itch severely) and ichthyosis (A
congenital, often hereditary skin disease characterized by dry,
thickened, scaly skin. Also called alligator skin, fish skin, fishskin
disease, ichthyosis sauroderma).
• Foods rich in calcium are: almonds, agar, avocados, barley, brazil
nuts, blackstrap molasses, carrots, buckwheat, cauliflower, figs, egg
yolk, Irish moss, kelp, lentils, goat milk, parsnips, rice polishing, veal
joint broth/jelly.
Other important and interesting
calcium facts:
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• Most abundant element found in water, ash of
plants and all soils.
• One of the most important biochemical elements
needed in human nutrition.
• Must undergo evolution from rock form to
plant/animal form to be assimilated.
• Contained in hard tissues of the body.
• Lends strength to arteries and veins – all
muscles.
Other important and interesting
calcium facts:
• Aids digestion, nutrition, neutralization.
• Regulates metabolism.
• Calcium imbalance is the beginning of chronic
disease.
• Menstrual disorders – increased calcium to
overcome excessive flow – menstrual blood
contains 40X the calcium of regular blood.
• Sugar intake depletes supply.
• Pellagra – calcium deficiency.
Other important and interesting
calcium facts:
• Milk deficiency in mothers – turnip greens, green
kale for calcium.
• Proven to make eggshells harder.
• Excess calcium – hardening, bony growths,
rheumatoid arthritis, joint stiffness (to combat
excess: wild strawberries, goat milk, raw egg
yolk tonics, okra, celery).
• Deficient calcium – lungs affected, growths,
tumors, sores, abscesses, fevers, inflammations,
deformities.
Carbon- The Builder
Carbon C (18%) is synonymous with life. Its central role is due to the
fact that it has four bonding sites that allow for the building of long,
complex chains of molecules. Moreover, carbon bonds can be
formed and broken with a modest amount of energy, allowing for the
dynamic organic chemistry that goes on in our cells.
• Carbon is the basic factor of cell birth and cell life, the cradle of
creation and principal element in growth. Carbon supports our vital
systems. Carbon is found in all carbohydrates.
• Excess carbon in the body can manifest by anemia, obesity
(adipose), diabetes, restlessness, laziness, boils, high blood
pressure, low sex drive and acidity. Carbon deficiency may manifest
as negativity, remoteness, and melancholy.
• Foods high in carbon: sugars, most proteins, starches,
grains/breads, fats, sweet fruits.
Chlorine- The Laundryman
Chlorine Cl (0.15%) is usually found in the body as a negative ion,
called chloride. This electrolyte is important for maintaining a normal
balance of fluids.
• Chlorine is an organic salt that helps eliminate tissue congestion
from the body, so new nutrients can be used to build and reinforce
our systems. It is a germicide and, together with sodium, slows
blood clotting and aids in keeping blood albumin, fibrin and casein,
in solution. Our bones, nerves, sex glands, sweat glands and liver
need chlorine, with a primary focus on building strong joints.
• Protein in the urine and insufficient oxygen intake due to malformed
re corpuscles will be evident if chorine (sodium chloride) is lacking in
your system.
• Foods that are high in chlorine are: avocado, banana, bass, beef,
beets, whole wheat bread, butter, buttermilk, casaba, celery,
chicken, chicory, dry dates, egg yolk, lamb.
Cobalt- The Proteinizer
• Cobalt (0.0000021%) is contained in
vitamin B12, which is important in protein
formation and DNA regulation.
Copper- The Giver
• Copper (0.0001%) is important as an
electron donor in various biological
reactions. Without enough copper, iron
won't work properly in the body.
Flourine- The Resister
Fluorine (0.0037%) is found in teeth and bones. Fluorine
reinforces calcium, preventing tooth decay. It keeps the
sinus walls healthy and balances oxygen.
• In cases of fluorine depletion, the hair, corneal
structures, nails, beard and skin are adversely affected.
Indications may be sweaty, clammy feet, sticky eyelids,
as well as numerous and painful boils and corns.
• Foods that are high in fluorine are: black-eyed peas,
goat buttermilk, goat butter, goat whey, spinach,
tomatoes, cheese, cabbage, and parsley.
Chromium- The Matchmaker
• Chromium (0.0000024%) helps regulate
sugar levels by interacting with insulin, but
the exact mechanism is still not completely
understood.
Hydrogen- The Moisturizer
• Water is 11% hydrogen. The human body is 70% water, the ocean
that is human life. Hydrogen moisturizes tissue, transports
nutrients, promotes elimination by irrigation of cells and organs,
regulates temperature, prevents inflammation and soothes the
nerves.
• With an excess of hydrogen, it would make sense that there would
be an issue with edema or fluid-type body. Symptoms and/or
attributes may include sluggishness, even temperament,
compassion, weakness and exhaustion. Lack of hydrogen may
create dehydration, appetite for salty foods, dry skin, excess body
heat, arthritis, leanness and irritability.
• Foods high in hydrogen are: fruit and vegetable juices, broths, kefir,
water, citrus fruits, milk, whey, cherries, cabbage, carrots, celery,
pineapple, watercress, watermelon.
Iodine- The Metabolizer
Iodine (0.000016%) is required for making of thyroid hormones, which
regulate metabolic rate and other cellular functions. Iodine
deficiency, which can lead to goiter and brain damage, is an
important health problem throughout much of the world.
• Iodine is vital in rebuilding new tissue in the body silicon and The
thyroid, our “emotion” gland, as well as the liver, spleen, uterus,
heart lining and lymphatic system are all greatly dependent on the
intake of iodine. The metabolism of calcium, fluorine and many other
elements are aided with iodine.
• Foods that are high in iodine are: agar, artichokes, asparagus,
beans, Brussels sprouts, cardamom, carrots, chives, coconut,
eggplant, kale kelp, dulse leaf, lettuce, loganberries, mustard
greens, oats, okra, onions, oysters, pike, tofu, spinach, squash,
strawberries, tuna, turnip greens, watercress.
Iron – The Energizer
Iron (0.006%) Fe is a key element in the metabolism of almost all living
organisms. It is also found in hemoglobin, which is the oxygen
carrier in red blood cells. Half of women don't get enough iron in
their diet.
• Iron works in conjunction with oxygen in the human body. It attracts
oxygen, promoting vitality, tissue oxidation, circulatory stimulation,
digestion, elimination and respiration.
• High iron content in the body may result in excess blood pressure,
“heaviness” of the senses and lethargy. Iron deficiency is more
common and manifest in anemia, poor respiration, low vital force,
and low blood pressure.
• The highest iron foods are: sea vegetation (dulse, kelp, Irish moss),
unsulphured dried fruits, black cherries, greens and liquid
chlorophyll.
Magnesium – The Relaxer
Magnesium Mg (0.05%) plays an important role in the structure of the
skeleton and muscles. It also is necessary in more than 300
essential metabolic reactions.
• Magnesium works with calcium to calm nerves, promote sleep and
is vital for teeth and bone strength, cell growth, tissue elasticity, and
lowers fever.
• Excessive content of magnesium in the body can create numbness,
apathy, sluggishness, slowed perception and poor memory. A low
amount of magnesium may result in insomnia, headache, stiff
muscles, hot temper, forgetfulness and mood shifts.
• Foods high in magnesium: wheat germ, greens, yellow cornmeal,
nuts and berries.
Manganese –
Manganese (0.000017%) is essential for certain enzymes, in particular
those that protect mitochondria — the place where usable energy is
generated inside cells — from dangerous oxidants.
• Manganese is strong, resilient and increases resistance. It assists in
controlling nervous tension, enhances intellect and coordinates
thought and action.
• Those who may have manganese excess will exhibit exaggerated
emotion, although excess is very rare. Manganese deficiency may
cause impatience, anxiety, nightmares, anger, depression, swollen
glands, aversion to being touched, gout symptoms, cracking joints
and reduced appetite.
• Foods high in manganese: nuts and seeds
Molybdenum- The Transformer
• Molybdenum (0.000013%) is essential to
virtually all life forms. In humans, it is
important for transforming sulfur into a
usable form. In nitrogen-fixing bacteria, it
is important for transforming nitrogen into
a usable form.
Nitrogen – The Restrainer
Nitrogen (3%) is found in many organic molecules, including the amino
acids that make up proteins, and the nucleic acids that make up
DNA.
• Nitrogen is found in elastic and connective tissue, hair, nails, skin
and body fluids and is essential for metabolism. Bodies with high
levels of nitrogen may be slow healing with lowered immune
systems, suffer from drowsiness, forgetfulness and low heat
generation.
• Deficiency in the nitrogen element may cause fatigue, muscular and
tendon cramping and weakness, danger of blood clots, and volatility
in personality.
• High protein foods are those that will assist the low nitrogen
personality; therefore, a decrease in high protein foods will assist a
high nitrogen personality.
• Foods high in nitrogen are: fish, spices, nuts, pasta, cheese, beans,
poultry, lamb, lentils and spirulina.
Oxygen – The Giver Of Life
Oxygen O (65%) and hydrogen (10%) are predominantly found in water, which makes
up about 60 percent of the body by weight. It's practically impossible to imagine life
without water.
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Heat production and physical and mental healthy are attributes of oxygen.
Metabolism and regeneration are reinforced by an uptake of oxygen. Oxygen acts
toward anabolism as well as catabolism. Think of recycling. All must return to nature,
and disintegration is only complete with regeneration. The oxygen cycle has no
beginning and no end.
High oxygen types produce and excess of heat causing heat flushes, red face and
neck toward evening, the lumbar region of the back my feel cool or numb, pain under
the scapula, glucose-producing foods may cause colic and the skin may show
symptoms of dermatitis. Salty foods and milk products are good for excessive oxygen
types. Low oxygen types show symptoms of nervous irritability, energy decrease,
poor digestion and the skin may flake and/or become scaly with blue undertones.
The highest oxygen foods are: beefs, blueberries, bone broth, fish, goat milk, nuts
and seeds, onions, radishes, sea vegetation, spinach, tomatoes and turtle. As a
general rule, foods that are high in iron are also high oxygen foods.
Phosphorus – The Light Bearer
Phosphorus Ph (1%) is found predominantly in bone but also in the
molecule ATP, which provides energy in cells for driving chemical
reactions.
• Phosphorus improves nerve nutrition, is an agent for growth,
necessary for reproduction, present in white blood cells, and
stimulates intellect. Phosphorus from vegetable sources affects the
bones and phosphorus from animal sources affects the brain and
nervous system.
• Phosphorus excess may cause volatile emotions, tissue
degeneration, progressive emaciation, and exaggerated confidence.
Those lacking in phosphorus will show signs of neuralgia, fear, lack
of confidence, sensitivity to criticism and slow oxygen uptake.
• Foods high in phosphorus are: for the nervous system/brain – fish,
meat, egg yolk, and dairy products; for the bones – lentils,
soybeans, almonds, pumpkin seeds, and sunflower seeds.
Potassium – The Alkalizer
Potassium K (0.25%) is an important electrolyte (meaning it carries a charge
in solution). It helps regulate the heartbeat and is vital for electrical signaling
in nerves.
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Potassium assists in recuperative powers. Potassium and sodium work
together in all cells of the body, including the nerve synapse, to maintain
membrane potentials and to assist in metabolic processes. Potassium has a
draining effect on the body to favor good kidney action. Potassium is
analgesic and neutralizes acidity in all parts of the body; therefore, lack of
potassium will cause acidity and skin eruptions. Acidity will show physical
evidence in the form of goose pimple-type skin on the upper arms and
thighs.
Potassium assists with ulcers, gangrene, cutaneous skin ailments, ingrown
toenails, as well as improvement in the assimilation of albumin, casein and
fibrin. When potassium and other alkaline salts are high in the blood,
injuries heal quicker.
Foods high in potassium: apples, anise, apricots, bananas, black cherries,
blueberries, Jerusalem artichokes, fish, kale, kelp, lentils, lima beans, wheat
germ, and watercress.
Selenium- The Catalyst
• Selenium (0.000019%) is essential for
certain enzymes, including several antioxidants. Unlike animals, plants do not
appear to require selenium for survival, but
they do absorb it, so there are several
cases of selenium poisoning from eating
plants grown in selenium-rich soils.
Silicon– The Magnetic Element
• Silicon provides elasticity, as well as helping the
body become more alkaline. It has great effect
on our membranous tissues and is beneficial for
the nerves, the bowel walls, the alimentary tract
and the lungs.
• Symptoms of silicon depletion can be a “drying
up” of the skin, exc3ess mucous production –
literally; avenues of elimination are closed.
• Foods rich in silicon are: oats, barley, apples,
bananas, beets, dates, kelp, brown rice and rice
polishings.
Other important and interesting
silicon facts:
• Magnetic comes from a city Magnesia in Thessaly.
Magnet, magnesia, magnetism have the same root.
Traced further back to magus, mach and the Sanskrit
word mahaji meaning great, learned, wise. Others magi,
magic, magician from this Sanskrit word. Ancient priests,
magis (Greats) used magnesian stones in curing people.
• Silica affects the tissues, bones and nerves.
• Alkaline so the brain and nervous system are influenced
making pulse more rhythmic.
• Antiseptic protection.
Other important and interesting
silicon facts:
• Flesh is firmer.
• Hair becomes shiny and abundant.
• A person with good quantities of silicon is agile, lean,
nimble, very active.
• (Lack of) abscesses, brooding and hopelessness,
broods over ethics and principles which are trivial to
others, becomes agitated, argumentative and
ungratified, sense of perception is chaotic, feelings are
hypersensitive, drowsy from riding in automobiles,
buzzing in the ears, eyesight deteriorates.
• (Excess) inflexibility.
Other important and interesting
silicon facts:
• Nations known for low cancer rates have a diet
high in silicon and formic acid.
• Good for bruises, catarrh, tuberculosis and
tumors.
• Autointoxication is prevented or reduced by
silicon.
• Nicotine and drug habits are easier to overcome
with silicon.
• Menstrual, ovarian and hysterical complications
need silicon.
• Varicosities are reduced.
Sodium – The Youth Element
• Sodium Na (0.15%) is another electrolyte that is vital for electrical
signaling in nerves. It also regulates the amount of water in the
body.
• Sodium is alkaline and is found in most waters and soils. Sodium
acts on body fluids, organs, connective tissue, liver, pancreas and
spleen. Provides alkalinity to the lymph and blood.
• Sodium excess types are always in a rush and have a tendency
toward the extreme. Sodium deficiency types may have dry skin,
flaccid muscles, offensive breath, cracking joints, difficulty digesting
sweets, starches and fats, and bloating and fatigue.
• Foods high in sodium: veal joint broth, goat milk, sea vegetation,
black mission figs, dried apricots, celery, parsley and collard greens.
Other important and interesting
sodium facts:
• One gallon of ocean water contains approximately 4 oz.
sea salt (rich in sodium).
• Humidity in air attracts sodium.
• Inorganic sodium (iodized salt) is not compatible with the
body.
• The sun “a sodium star” as viewed by Bernard Jensen,
ensures a high sodium content in mature fruit.
• Organic sodium keeps calcium in solution in the human
body.
• Said to neutralize ulcers.
Sulphur – The Heater
Sulfur (0.25%) is found in two amino acids that are
important for giving proteins their shape.
• Sulphur is the skin’s heating element and unites with all
metals. Its primary function is building the skin, nail and
hair. It also drives impurities to the surface, thus
beautifying the complexion. Sulphur stimulates and
regulates nerve activity, egg and sperm production,
regulates brain heat and promotes flow of bile.
• Symptoms of Sulphur deficiency are acne, imbalance in
sebum flow and weakened hair and nails.
• Foods rich in Sulphur are: winter vegetables such as
kale, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower,
horseradish, watercress, chervil and garlic.
Zinc- The Protector
• Zinc (0.0032%) is an essential trace
element for all forms of life. Several
proteins contain structures called "zinc
fingers" help to regulate genes. Zinc
deficiency has been known to lead to
dwarfism in developing countries.
Chemical Bonding
• Chemical bonds from to make atoms more
stable
– Outermost energy level of each atom is full
– Atoms may share, or donate, or borrow them
to become stable.
IONIC BONDS
• Ions form when an atom gains or loses
electrons in its outer energy level to
become stable.
– Positive ion- has lost electrons; indicated by
superscript positive sign(s), as in Na+, or
Ca++
– Negative ion- has gained electrons; indicated
by superscript negative sign(s), as in Cl-
IONIC BONDS
• Ionic bonds form when positive and
negative ions attract each other because
of electrical attraction
• Electrolytes are molecules that dissociate
(break apart) in water to form individual
ions, also known as free ions
COVALENT BONDS
• Covalent bonds form when atoms share
their outer energy to fill up and thus
become stable
• Covalent bonds do not ordinarily easily
dissociate in water.
FIVE MAJOR GROUPS OF
COMPOUNDS
1. Carbohydrates- energy source, energy
reserve, and structure
2. Lipids- fats- structure and energy source
3. Proteins- functional and structural
4. Nucleotides- structural genetic
5. Water- solvent, heat maintenance
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
• Inorganic molecules do not contain
carbon-carbon covalent bonds or carbonhydrogen covalent bonds.
• For example:
– Water
– Some acids
– Some bases
– Some salts
WATER CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Dehydration synthesis- chemical reaction
in which water is removed from small
molecules so they can be strung together
to form a larger molecule
• Hydrolysis- chemical reaction in which
water is added to the subunits of a large
molecule to break it apart into smaller
molecules
• Chemical reactions always involve energy
transfers, as when energy is used to built
ATP molecules
• Chemical equations show how reactants
interact to form products; arrows
separated the reactants from the products
ACIDS, BASES, SALTS
• Water molecules dissociate to form equal
amounts of H+ (hydrogen ion) and OH(hydroxide ion)
• Acid- substance that shifts the H+/OHbalance in favor of the H+; opposite of the
base
• Base-substance that shifts the H+/OHbalance against H+, also known as an
alkaline; opposite of acid
pH
• pH- mathematical expression of the
relative H+ concentration in an aqueous
solution
• Neutralization occurs when acids and
bases mix and form salts
• Buffers are chemical systems that absorb
excess acids or bases and thus maintain a
relatively stable pH
Organic Chemistry
• Organic molecules contain carbon-carbon
covalent bonds or carbon-hydrogen
covalent bonds
Carbohydrates
• Contain carbon(C), hydrogen(H), and
oxygen(O).
• Made up of six-carbon subunits called
monosaccharides or single sugars (such
as glucose)
• Disaccharide- double sugar made of two
monosaccharide units (sucrose, lactose)
• Polysaccharide- complex charbohydrate
made up of many monosaccharide units
(glycogen)
• The function of carbohydrates is to store
energy for later use
Lipids
• Lipids are fats and oils
• Triglycerides
– Are made up of one glycerol unit and three
fatty acids
– Store energy for later use
• Phospholipids
– Are similar to triglyceride structure, expect
with only two fatty acids, and with a
phosphorus-containing group attached to
glycerol
– The head attracts water and the double tail
does not, forming a sable double layer in
water.
– Form membranes of cells
• Cholesterol
– Molecules have a steroid structure made up
of multiple rings
– Cholesterol stabilizes the phospholipid tails in
cellular membranes and is also converted into
steroid hormones by the body
Proteins
• Proteins are very large molecules made
up of amino acids held together in long,
folded chains by peptide bonds
• Structural proteins
– Form structures of the body
– Collagen in a fibrous protein that holds many
tissues together
– Keratin forms touch, waterproof fibers in the
outer layer of skin
Proteins
• Functional proteins
– Participate in chemical processes (examples:
hormones, cell membrane channels,
receptors, and enzymes)
– Enzymes are
• Catalyst which help chemical reactions occur
• Lock-and-key model-each enzyme fits a particular
molecule that it acts on as a key fitting into a lock
Proteins
• Proteins can combine with other organic
molecules to form glycoprotein or
lipoproteins
Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids are made of nucleotide units
• Sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
• Phosphate- nitrogen base (adenine,
thymine, or uracil, guanine, cytosine)
DNA
• Deoxyribonucleic acid is used as the cell’s
“master code” for assembling proteins
• Uses deoxyribose as the sugar and
A,T,(not U), C, and G as bases
• Forms a double helix
RNA
• Ribonucleic acid is used as the temporary
“working copy” of a gene
• Uses ribose as the sugar and A, U, (not T),
C, and G as bases
Nucleic Acids
• By directing the formation of structural and
functional proteins, nucleic acids ultimately
direct overall body structure and function