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CHAPTER
4
Individual Variations
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Learning Goals
1. Discuss the concept of intelligence, how it is
measured, and some controversies about its use by
educators.
2. Describe and evaluate learning and thinking styles.
3. Define personality, identify the “big five” factors in
personality, and discuss person-situation
interaction. Also, define temperament, identify three
types of children’s temperament, and evaluate
teaching strategies linked to children’s
temperament.
4.2
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Individual Variations
Intelligence
Individual
Intelligence Tests
Individual Tests
Versus
Group Tests
Controversies and
Issues in
Intelligence
Theories of
Multiple
Intelligences
4.3
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Intelligence
Intelligence: Problem-solving skills and
the ability to adapt to and learn from life’s
everyday experiences
Buros
4.4
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Binet Intelligence Tests
Mental Age
Intelligence
Quotient (IQ)
Normal
Distribution
• An individual’s level of mental
development relative to others
MentalAge
IQ =
 100
Chronological Age
• A symmetrical distribution
• Majority of the scores falling in
the middle
• Few scores in the extremes
4.5
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The Normal Curve
4.6
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Bell Curve
4.7
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Theories and Tests of Intelligence
• The Stanford-Binet test
– The Stanford-Binet test
– The mean or average IQ score for all
age groups is designated as 100 ± 15.
– Given individually
– Ages 2 – 80s
4.8
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Individual Intelligence Tests
The Wechsler Scales
Age-related versions provide an overall IQ and
also yield both verbal and performance IQs.
(WPPSI-III) Wechsler Preschool and Primary
Scale of Intelligence-Revised. Ages 2.5 to 7.3
(WISC-IV) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children-Revised. Ages 6 to 16 years, 11
months
(WAIS-III) Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleRevised
Ages 16-89
4.9
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WPPS
WPPSI-III
I
4.10
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4.13
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Wechsler Subscales
4.14
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4.15
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4.16
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•
•
•
•
•
WISC-IV
Word Reasoning—measures reasoning with verbal material; child
identifies underlying concept given successive clues.
Matrix Reasoning—measures fluid reasoning a (highly reliable
subtest on WAIS® –III and WPPSI™–III); child is presented with a
partially filled grid and asked to select the item that properly
completes the matrix.
Picture Concepts—measures fluid reasoning, perceptual
organization, and categorization (requires categorical reasoning
without a verbal response); from each of two or three rows of objects,
child selects objects that go together based on an underlying
concept.
Letter-Number Sequencing—measures working memory (adapted
from WAIS–III); child is presented a mixed series of numbers and
letters and repeats them numbers first (in numerical order), then
letters (in alphabetical order).
Cancellation—measures processing speed using random and
structured animal target forms (foils are common non-animal objects).
4.17
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Theories and Tests of Intelligence
• Raven’s Progressive Matrices
– Psychologists created “culture-reduced”
tests without language. It tests abstract
reasoning ability (non-verbal intelligence or
performance IQ).
4.18
Figure 9.2 Items similar to those in Raven’s Progressive Matrices test. The
instructions are: “Each pattern has a piece missing. From the eight choices
provided, select the one that completes the pattern, both going across and
going down.”
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Group Intelligence Tests
Advantage
– More convenient and economical
Disadvantages
– Examiner cannot:
• establish rapport
• determine student’s level of anxiety
– Student:
• might not understand instructions
• might be distracted by other students
4.20
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Early Theories of Multiple Intelligence
• Spearman (1927): People have both
general intelligence (g) and specific types
of intelligence (s).
• Thurston (1938): People have seven
specific intellectual abilities (verbal
comprehension, associative memory, word
fluency, reasoning, number ability, spatial
visualization, and perceptual speed).
4.21
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Figure 9.3 According to Spearman (1904), all intelligent abilities have an
area of overlap, which he called (for “general”). Each ability also depends
partly on an s (for “specific”) factor.
4.22
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Figure 9.4a Measurements of sprinting, high jumping, and
long jumping correlate with one another because they all
depend on the same leg muscles. Similarly, the g factor that
emerges in IQ testing could reflect a single ability that all tests
tap.
4.23
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Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence
Analytical: analyze, judge, evaluate,
compare/contrast
Creative: create, design, invent,
originate, and imagine
Practical: use, apply, implement, put
into practice
4.24
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Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Theory into Practice
Cindy always does very well on both standardized
and classroom tests and gets good grades in
school. However, she does not write original stories
well, nor would anyone say that she has much
common sense.
Q: In what form of intelligence is Cindy high? Explain.
4.25
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Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Theory into Practice
Trent does not do well on standardized tests. His
grades are not very high. However, Trent is very
imaginative and a wonderful story-teller. Trent’s
classmates beg him to read his stories to the class.
Trent hopes to be a novelist one day. However, he
often turns in work that does not conform to teacher
expectations or directions.
Q: In what form of intelligence is Trent high? Explain.
4.26
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Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Theory into Practice
Ken doesn’t do very well in school. However, he is
very popular with his peers and has excellent
leadership skills.
Q: In what form of intelligence is Ken high? Explain.
4.27
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Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
4.28
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Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind
Theory into Practice
Carrie loves to read and to write stories.
Q: Which of Gardner's’ 8 Frames of Mind is she
displaying when she engages in these activities?
Explain.
4.29
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Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind
Theory into Practice
Jane is an excellent athlete, excelling at soccer,
basketball, and baseball.
Q: Which of Gardner's’ 8 Frames of Mind is Jane
displaying when she engages in these activities?
Explain.
4.30
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Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind
Theory into Practice
Steve loves to play the piano, trumpet, and drums
and is quite good at all of them.
Q: Which of Gardner's’ 8 Frames of Mind is Steve
displaying when he engages in these activities?
Explain.
4.31
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Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind
Theory into Practice
Tanesha is a good friend. People often open up to
her and tell her things they would not share with
other people. She never betrays a trust.
Q: Which of Gardner's’ 8 Frames of Mind is Tanesha
displaying when she engages in these activities?
Explain.
4.32
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Emotional Intelligence
According to Salovey and Mayer (1990)
emotional intelligence is the ability to:
• monitor one’s own and others’
feelings and emotions,
• to discriminate among them, and
• to use this information to guide one’s
thinking and action.
Salovey
Mayer
4.33
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Emotional Skills
•
•
•
•
Developing emotional awareness
Managing emotions
Reading emotions
Handling relationships
4.34
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Reflection & Observation
Reflection:
•
•
How are you intelligent?
How did teachers accommodate
instruction to address your intellectual
abilities?
Observation:
•
•
What were the children in these
classrooms learning? Why is it
important for children to develop these
abilities?
What new teaching ideas did you
glean from this video?
4.35
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Enter the Debate
Should schools use intelligence tests for
placement purposes?
YES
NO
4.36
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Contribution of Multiple Intelligence
Approaches
The various theories have stimulated us to
think more broadly about what makes up
people’s intelligence and competence.
4.37
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Nature vs. Nurture in Intelligence
Genetic components provide a
propensity for a particular
developmental trajectory.
Enriching environments can
improve school achievement
and the acquisition of skills.
4.38
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Ethnicity and IQ Testing
The consensus is that due to
environmental factors, on average in
the U.S., children from African American
and Latino families score lower than
white children on IQ tests.
4.39
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Culture and IQ Tests
Culturally biased tests favor:
– Urban over rural children
– Middle-income over low-income children
– White children over minority children
Culture-fair tests, free of cultural bias:
 Type 1: Include items familiar to all
socioeconomic (SES) and ethnic backgrounds
 Type 2: Remove verbal items from tests
4.40
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Between-Class Ability
Grouping and Tracking
…groups students based on
their ability or achievement.
Advantages
Disadvantages
• Narrows class skill
range
• Prevents “less able”
students from holding
back more talented
students
• Stigmatizes students
in lower track
• Segregates students
by SES and ethnicity
4.41
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Within-Class Ability Grouping
Within-class ability grouping involves
placing students in two or three
groups within a class according to
their ability or achievement.
4.42
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Learning and Thinking Styles
Learning and
Thinking Styles
Dichotomies of
Learning and
Thinking Styles
Evaluating
Learning and
Thinking Styles
4.43
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Reflective vs. Impulsive Thinking Styles
Reflective students surpass impulsive
students at
– Reading comprehension
– Remembering structured information
– Problem solving and decision making
– Goal setting
– Setting high standards for performance
4.44
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Deep vs. Surface Learning Styles
Deep Learners
• Actively construct
knowledge
• Give meaning to
material
• Focus on internal
rewards
• Are self-motivated
Surface Learners
• Are passive
learners
• Fail to tie
information to a
larger framework
• Focus on external
rewards
4.45
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Personality and Temperament
Personality
and Temperament
Personality
Temperament
4.46
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Personality vs. Temperament
Personality: The distinctive
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
that characterize the way an
individual adapts to the world
Temperament: A person’s
behavioral style and characteristic
way of responding
4.47
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The “Big Five” Personality Factors
4.48
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Person-Situation Interaction Theory
The best way to
characterize an
individual’s personality
is not only in terms of
personal traits or
characteristics, but
also in terms of the
situation involved.
4.49
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Children’s Temperament
Easy
Difficult
Slow-to-Warm-Up
• Positive mood
• Reacts
negatively
• Low activity level
• Establishes
regular routines
• Adapts to new
experiences
• Aggressive
tendencies
• Lacks selfcontrol
• Negative
• Slow adaptability
• Low intensity of
mood
4.50
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Crack the Case
The Workshops
1. What are the issues in this case?
2. To what extent should teachers adapt their
instruction to the strengths, learning styles, and
personalities of their students? Why?
3. What will you do in your classroom to
accommodate individual differences such as
students’ intellectual strengths, learning styles, and
personalities?
4. What other individual differences do you think you
might have to accommodate? How will you do this?
4.51