Routes to Independence:
Francophone colonies
“ … he suffered from … suicidal
obsessions. The critical date was
that when on instructions from his
organization he had placed a bomb
somewhere. …This militant, who
never for a single moment thought
of repudiating his past action,
realized very clearly the manner in
which he himself had to pay the
price of national independence”
[Franz Fanon,The Wretched of the Earth,
p.206]
WWII: Europe, Africa & the World
- post-war world saw creation of United
Nations (to replace League of Nations)
- Increase in anti-colonial rhetoric (including
Pan-Africanists)
- independence in various Asian regions,
especially India, had major impact on
colonizers and colonized alike
WWII: Europe, Africa & the World
-Britain and France began speaking of
‘changes’ to colonialism
(will look at Britain next week)
- allowed formation of Workers’ Unions
where previously illegal
-United States and Soviet Union emerged
strong from the war:
- demanded access to colonial world
- supported anti-colonialist movements
The French Experience
Post-war change came first in France:
- left-leaning coalition (including
Communist Party) immediately moved
for change in colonial world.
- 1946: Union Francaise created
‘commonwealth’ of French Colonies
- 20 Africans to be elected
representatives to French Assembly
- others to serve in new Assembly for
the Union
Francophone Colonies: the 1950s
To protect future influence established
Communaute Francaise:
- France continued to control finance
(common currency), foreign policy,
military affairs
- local parliamentary government, flag,
anthem devolved to ‘states’
Francohpone… 1950s (cont.)
Reactions varied:
- some not happy but felt Communaute
gave time for weaker, poorer colonies to
gain strength, therefore supported
- others pleased to see small elite kept in
positions of power
- cultural reactions expressed in part by
Leopold Senghor’s concept of negritude,
‘modern-conservatism’ -- ‘return to
Mother Africa’ within larger French
community
Francophone…: the Referendum
1958: referendum on question of belonging to
the Communaute:
- de Gaulle made special tour of each
colony preparing voters
- maintained control over voting
apparatus
- “YES” vote meant continuing
patronage of France – aid, military
support, currency stability (the FWA,
FEA franc tied to French franc)
- “NO” meant withdrawal of all support
Francophone…: Referendum (cont.)
Every colony voted ‘yes’ – EXCEPT Guinea:
- leader, Seku Toure strongly based in
workers unions
- Partie Democratique de Guinee
won popular support
- undermined authority traditional chiefs
- 95% voters rejected the Communaute ,
opted for ‘real’ independence
Francophone…: Referendum (cont.)
- all aid immediately cut off
- all French infrastructure that could be
removed was – even telephones ripped off
walls!
Guinea reflected potential danger:
if one colony could make it alone, how long
before the others did the same?
Algeria
- other ‘exception’: settler colony of Algeria
- already ‘province’ of France
- ‘decolonizing’ process not applicable (from
perspective of France)
- ‘anachronism’ in decolonizing world (from
perspective of ‘Arab’Algerians
Algeria
Algeria representative of most settler
colonies:
- resistance to continuing colonial rule led to
full scale wars, often civil wars
- ideology played key roles and therefore…
- … had direct implications for international
interests (Cold War)
- had significant impact on ‘home’ colonial
society as well as colony
Algeria
Algeria part of France:
-‘Algerie Francaise’ since 1830
- French settlers: ‘pieds noirs’ or ‘colons’
- 1950s Algerians struggling against two
‘layers’ colonizers who would not negotiate
- war for independence lasted 1954-1962
- Algeria’s battle critical to struggle of West
African French colonies
Algeria
Algeria:
-oldest colony; climate, land attracted 1
million, settlers (among 7 million Algerians)
- 1950 held 23% best land
-colons saw Algeria as part of France
-part of French metropolis except better
policed, more military presence
-Algerian workers moved in, out of France
- fewer racial tensions than other settler
regimes (eg Kenya)
Algeria c.1950 (cont.)
 Unlike West, East Africa, Algeria not part
of post-war discussions of decolonization:
- but had educated elite, nationalists,
representing same range of positions
-differed by being part of larger Arab, Muslim
‘nationalist’ movement
- strong across North Africa, rooted in Egypt
- drew on ideology not contained or defined
by colony or regional ethnicity: Islam
Algeria c.1950 (cont.)
France:
- Gaullist party became powerful after 1951
elections
-aligned with colons’ interests
- openly repressed local inhabitants Algeria,
Morocco, Tunisia
- Last two colonies turned to United Nations
to censure French policies: failed
- French position hardened in face of
‘external’ interference
Algeria c. 1950 (cont.)
 Resistance in Algeria led by Front de
Liberation National(FLN)
- guerilla warfare and terrorism in both
countryside and cities
- key battles in capital of Algiers
War in Countryside
Peasants fleeing
War (left)
Prisoner of War,
farmer’s pig shed
(right)
War in Algiers
City Street Barricade. “Vive Massu” (reference to
General Massu who led Parachute Troops and
brought about end to battle of Algiers through
terrorism and torture)
Video
The Battle of Algiers
(made in France, 1967 – reissued 2003)
[excerpt]
F.L.N. and its Ideology
 Role of Islam as ‘ideology’:
- Islam played large role in defining who was
‘with’ who was not ‘with’ movement
-seen by French as synonymous with:
resistance
being ‘Arab’
terrorism
- bred ‘terrorism’ among French in return
Impact on Combatants
“the Arab, permanently an alien in his own
country, lives in a state of absolute
depersonalization. . . . The events in Algeria
are the logical consequence of an abortive
attempt to decerebralize a people"
(Fanon, Toward the African Revolution 53).
Impact on Combatants
-The French and those who fought as French
troops also scarred by war
[see ‘Senegalese Soldier in Algeria’ in Additional readings]
- ‘total war’ in Algeria: everyone played a
role
[reference ‘Battle of Algiers’ video excerpt showed in class Mar 3]
Struggle not confined to Algiers
Struggle neither began nor ended in Algiers:
-‘Battle of Algiers’ lasted three
years (1954-7)
- ‘Battle of Algeria’ lasted seven
F.L.N. and the Wider World
 North Africa support strong, especially
Egypt (‘Radio Caire’):
- angered French and British
- Nasser (power 1954) initially seen as
positive in terms of controlling panIslamicism
- 1956: nationalized Suez Canal,
provoked major debacle for western
powers
F.L.N and the Wider World
Marked turning point for France:
-parachute troops to Algiers
- leader (Massu) brought experience of IndoChine (Vietnam)
- urban guerilla war met new terrorism, torture
F.L.N. (cont)
 ‘impact’ of the war in France:
- left, liberals ‘uncomfortable’ with
infringements on human rights
- 1956 articles and ‘dialogues’ appearing
in major public venues like Paris-Match
F.L.N. (cont)
Attracted attention in US:
-1957 Kennedy demanded discussion in
UN
- 1958 France surveillance tracked FLN
to Tunisian village: air bombed it
- US, Britain pushed for negotiations
Air War
Dropping
Napalm
Impact on France
International embarrassment:
- dissension in military, economic
doubts
- all challenged holding on to ‘Algerie
Francais’
- not enough to dislodge entrenched
interests, boosted by victory in Algiers
Impact on France
May 1958:
- demonstration in Algiers led to
formation “Committee of Public Safety”
- Fear military coup directed from
Algiers led to constitutional transfer of
power in Paris: de Gaulle called from
retirement
Impact on France (cont.)
“Je vous ai compris!” De Gaulle said to:
- the colons
- the Algerian francophiles
- the military:
What did that mean?
Impact on France (cont.)
- De Gaulle convinced of decolonization
- believed in modernization of country,
‘nuclearization’ of defense system
- tried to keep nuclear test sites in Sahara (a
test had taken place in 1960), some oil and
gas holdings but…
- by 1961, willing to negotiate the nonnegotiable… and with the FLN!
De Gaulle Decolonizes
 1959 he spoke of ‘self determination’
 1960 of an ‘Algerian Algeria’
 1961 of a ‘sovereign Algeria’
 In 1962:
“We must concede these details rather than
reject an agreement; for there is no
comparison between the primary interest,
which consists of reaching an agreement, and
the secondary interest, which consists of
holding a little longer certain things which in
any case we do not reckon to hold for ever!”
[cited in Feildhouse, Decolonization in Africa, 2nd ed., p.185]
De Gaulle Decolonizes
- Attempts to assure colons, military and
Algerians who believed assimilation that
France would not abandon them failed
- 1961-2 constant unrest, plots to assassinate
de Gaulle threatened to undermine France
itself
-1962 meetings at Evian, France with FLN led
to agreement which was, only a few years
earlier, unthinkable: negotiated independence
for Algeria
De Gaulle Decolonizes
Agreement:
- France promised ‘co-operation’
(financial assistance) to help rebuild
after 8 years of war
- FLN promised to ‘protect’ remaining
colons
- offer them choice of citizenship after 3
years
De Gaulle Decolonizes
But undermined:
- flight of most settlers with skills,
capital threatened economy
- FLN factions threatened political
stability
Independence