“To sleep, perchance to dream.”
William Shakespeare

1. Clear your desks
2. Get comfortable
3. Go to sleep

• A person’s awareness of the world around him/her.
• Individual consciousness can vary
• If consciousness varies to the point that it considerably varies from the norm, it is termed an altered state of consciousness (ASC).
• The cycle of wake & sleep is known as circadian rhythm. The chemical melatonin plays a key role in the regulation of sleep/wake cycles.

• Old view of consciousness: The brain was “on” only when a person is awake.
• Current view: Research indicates that the brain is always “on,” regardless of whether a person is awake or asleep.
• In fact, according to research, certain areas of the brain (e.g. lateral parietal cortex, medial prefrontal cortex) are more active (up to 20X) during sleep than when awake (Raichle).

• This has been termed the default mode network
• Believed to play a major role in learning and memory
• Also may be linked to Alzheimer’s, clinical depression, and schizophrenia (Raichle; also
Whitfield-Gabrieli, 2008).

• Why do we sleep?
Answer: unknown
• It is known that all humans need to sleep; without it, hallucinations will occur. If a person does not sleep, eventually they will die.
• Sleep needs will vary with age.
• There are four stages of sleep; most dreaming takes place in Stage 1. Some separate REM stage sleep into a different stage altogether.

• Sleep apnea: interruption of breathing during sleep. Person afflicted will snore because their windpipe is blocked, which causes the person to wake up repeatedly throughout the sleep cycle. Can be fatal.
• Insomnia: inability to sleep. Linked with anxiety and/or depression
• Narcolepsy: The immediate falling to sleep
(often REM) from wake.

• Somnambulism: sleepwalking. Occurs on
NREM sleep. Can be very dangerous.
Sleeptalking (somniloquy) also occurs during
NREM sleep.
• Night terrors: Occurs during Stage 4 sleep, not during dream state. Features fear-producing episodes combined with movement of the person affected. Not the same as nightmares.

• Everyone dreams
• Dreams occur during REM sleep. Recent research also indicates that dreams occur during NREM sleep (Stickgold).
• REM= Rapid Eye Movement
• Your ability to remember dreams depends on waking up during/right after REM sleep.
• REM sleep typically begins during the second time of Stage 1 sleep.
• Dreams occur 3-5 times during sleep

• REM dreams are longer. REM dream states also increase throughout the night.
• NREM dreams are associated with positive emotions, while REM dreams are associated with negative emotions
• Ratio of NREM to REM dreams may be related to depression
• Research indicates that NREM dreams make memories more useful in future applications of what has been previously experienced/learned

• Research indicates that dreams occur in real time.
• Freudian Theory: Dreams indicate a pathway into a person’s true self. Dreams contain symbols of what the person is consciously unaware.
• Activation-Synthesis: Dreams are composed of bizarre combinations of a person’s working memory.
• Continual-activation (Zhang, 2004): During sleep, information is stored into long-term memory. Dreams are a byproduct of the storage process. REM sleep also seems to foster neurogenesis (Guzman-Marin et al,
2008; Meerlo et al 2009).

• Scientists at the University of California-
Berkeley have used fMRI technology to model not only what subjects think about when awake, but what they dream about while asleep
• Images are crude at the moment, but are believed to become sharper in detail in the future.

• What is a drug?
Any substance that changes a person’s behavior.
Drugs taken for recreational purposes are
psychoactive.
What is the most used drug in the U.S.?
What is the most abused drug in the U.S.?

• Stimulants: Drugs that accelerate the brain & body
(caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine).
• Depressants: Drugs that slow down the brain & body
(alcohol, barbiturates, morphine, opium). Depressants are split into those that are pain-killers (opiates), and those that make the user drowsy (sedatives).
• Hallucinogens (aka psychedelics) : Drugs that generate changes in perception detached from physical reality
(LSD, marijuana, peyote, mushrooms).
Note: The drug MDMA (aka Ecstasy) is a compound that is both stimulant and hallucinogen.

• ONDCP (Office of National Drug Control Policy,
2007) stats:
Among Youth (12-17):
Any illicit drug: 9.5%
Marijuana: 6.7%
Cocaine: 0.4%
Methamphetamine: 0.1%
Illicit use of prescription drugs: 3.3%
Hallucinogens: 0.7%
Overall drug use down from 11.6%

• Among young adults (17-25):
Cocaine: 1.7 %
Meth: 0.4
Most commonly used illegal drugs used by first time users:
1. Prescription Drugs (2.5 million)
2. Marijuana (2.1 million)

• Please watch the following commercials, and answer the following questions:
1. Which commercial is the most effective, and why?
2. Which commercial is the least effective, and why?
3. Overall, are media campaigns effective in keeping people from using drugs? Why?

• Causes approximately 85,000 deaths in U.S. each year (CDC).
• Most abused substance in the country.
• DUI accidents primary cause of death among teenagers in the U.S.
• People who drink alcohol more likely to:
1. Engage in high-risk sexual behavior
2. Use tobacco
3. Have poor grades/job performance
4. Use illegal drugs

• Nicotine is the active drug in tobacco
• Currently 20% of adults smoke, compared to over 40% in 1965 (CDC, 2007)
• According to the CDC (2007), approx 50% of all high school seniors have tried cigarettes
• 90% of all adult smokers started by age 19
(ACS).
• Approximately 440,000 people die in the U.S. from smoking-related causes.

• 350,000 acres in the U.S. are currently used in tobacco production (MSNBC, 6/11/08)
• Estimated profit from tobacco per acre: $
1,000-1,500. From corn: $100-150 (MSNBC, ibid)
• #1 cash crop in U.S.: Marijuana (Estimates have been as much as $100 Billion/annually)

• Physiological Dependence (aka Addiction)
Why are some people more prone to addiction than others?
Salience Theory of Addiction (Volkow)
- Involves the neurotransmitter dopamine
- Dopamine is involved in motivation, pleasure, and learning
- Earlier theories believed that dopamine triggered the brain’s pleasure centers (e.g. limbic system, prefrontal cortex), causing the addict to seek the next “fix”

• Problem: addicts often are completely miserable (think
Jessica from “Intervention”). According to Volkow, some substances and/or behaviors trigger such a rush of dopamine that it overwhelms receptors within the brain.
• Result: The dopamine now acts as a motivating agent, making the need to get the next “fix” the most salient
(i.e. important) thing for the addict to accomplish.
• Conclusion: According to this theory, Tiger Woods and
Jessica have more in common than you might think