The whole of human history is built upon
communication. From the first story told in
prehistoric times through the mass media of today,
verbal communication has built the foundation of
who we are, where we came from, and what we
hope to become.
Throughout time, many orators, philosophers,
and educators have tried to capture the
essence of human communication. Although
a true understanding of the complexity of
communication takes years of examination,
here are a few theories.
Long before humankind even conceived
of written language, history and
tradition were kept through storytelling.
Many of the oldest stories and religious
traditions of today were retold as stories
countless times before they were ever
written down.
With no script or written word to follow, storytellers
weaved detailed anecdotes about the world around
them entirely from memory. These tales explained
the mysteries of the world, recounted the heroes of
the past, and informed early tribal members of the
daily happenings around them.
For thousands of years, storytellers were the
keepers of the history of humankind. They
held a highly respected role in the
community. In addition to keeping the
culture, storytellers acted as educators,
newscasters, and entertainers.
Even after written language developed, many
societies rejected writing for religious or
cultural reasons. It is believed that the early
Israelites may have thought that the Second
Commandment (Thou shalt have no graven
images before Me) forbade them from using
the written word. This sentiment has been
shared by many throughout history (including
an early American sect known as the
Dunkers).
Unfortunately, the lack of written records has left
many questions about who these people were and
what they believed.. But at least their complex oral
traditions have left us a verbal image of times that
may have otherwise been forgotten
Over 2300 years ago, Aristotle laid the groundwork
for modern public communication. His teacher,
Plato, hated the way that public speakers skillfully
manipulated audiences with no apparent regard for
truth. Plato saw little value for the mere rhetoric
used by the fast-talking speakers of his day.
Aristotle, however, saw great potential in
rhetoric (one person addressing many). He
believed it was an art that could and should
be studied and that good rhetoric was not
only persuasive, but also ethical. He stated
that all public presentations are some
balance of three rhetorical proofs: ethos
(ethical), pathos (emotional), and logos
(logical).
The ethos is the speaker and his or her
character as revealed through the
communication. The pathos is the audience
and the emotions felt by them during the
rhetoric. The logos is the actual words used
by the speaker.
Although no presenter today would speak
without considering the audience, Aristotle's
pathos was a novel idea in his time. He is the
earliest record of a rhetorician identifying
the audience and their perception as an
important part of public speaking. In fact,
he believed that a speech was effective only if
it stirred up emotions in its audience.
Although Kenneth Burke never received
a college degree, his Dramatism Theory
has become an important addition to
mainstream communication theory.
Burke believed that all of life and all
communication is a drama. His primary
concern is with a speaker's ability to
identify with an audience.
Burke's pentad identifies five crucial elements
of our human drama (communications). The
act is what has been done by the
communicator. The scene gives the context
or background surrounding the act. The agent
is the person who performed the act. The
agency is the means that was used to "get the
job done". The purpose is the stated or
implied goal of the address.
If there is a perceived similarity
between the speaker and the
listener, the audience is more likely
to believe that the speaker was
"talking sense". This is the key to
persuasive speaking, according to
Burke
Although most communicators will argue
that narratives are only one part of
communication, Walter Fisher believes that
all communication is a form of storytelling.
His Narrative Paradigm asserts that people
are essentially storytelling animals and our
reason is best appealed to through stories.
.
Fisher defines narration as symbolic actions,
words, and/or deeds that have sequence and
meaning for those who live, create or
interpret them. Obviously, his broad
definition that everything with sequence and
meaning is a narrative leaves little room to
argue with his claim that all meaningful
communication is storytelling
Fisher says that not all stories are created
equally. He thinks that everyone has the
same innate ability to determine the
narrative rationality (interpreted value) of the
stories we hear based upon two aspects. First
we examine the narrative coherence. This is
our way of determining if the story holds
together and makes sense in our world.
Then we check the narrative
fidelity. Here we see if the story
matches our own beliefs and
experiences and, hence, portrays
the world we live in.
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People are essentially rational
We make decisions on the basis of arguments
The type of speaking situation determines
the course of our argument
Rationality is determined by how much we
know and how well we argue
The world is a set of logical puzzles that we
can solve through rational analysis
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People are essentially storytellers
We make decisions on the basis of good
reasons
History, biography, culture, and character
determine what we consider good reasons
Narrative rationality is determined by the
coherence and fidelity of our stories
The world is a set of stories from which we
choose, and thus constantly re-create, our
lives
Claude Shannon was a research scientist at Bell
Telephone Company trying to achieve maximum
telephone line capacity with minimum distortion. He
had never intended for his mathematical theory of
signal transmission for anything but telephones. But
when Warren Weaver applied Shannon's concept of
information loss to interpersonal communication, one
of the most popular models of communication was
created.
Information Source ========> Message Sent
Transmitter
========> Signal Sent
Sources of Noise
========> Signal Received
Receiver
========> Message Received
Destination
According to Shannon and Weaver's model
a message begins at an information source,
which is relayed through a transmitter, and
then sent via a signal towards the receiver.
But before it reaches the receiver, the
message must go through noise (sources of
interference). Finally, the receiver must
convey the message to its destination.
Suppose you have an idea in your
head (information source) that you
want to tell someone about. You
must first move the idea from your
brain to your mouth (transmitter).
Since you cannot actually share your
gray matter, you must select words
for your transmitter to use.
Once you speak, your voice (signal) is carried
through the air toward the listener's ear
(receiver). Along the way, your signal is joined
by a myriad of other sounds and distractions
(noises). The receiver then takes everything it
receives and tries to maximum the message
and minimize the noise. Finally, the receiver
conveys its message to the other person's
mind (destination).
Shannon and Weaver's model clearly
demonstrates why even the simplest
communications can be misunderstood.
Transmitting a signal across additional
media only adds to the complexity of the
communication and increases the chance
for distortion. It is suddenly easier to
understand why other people just can't
grasp what we already know.