Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Morocco
Algeria
Straightforward political histories
Link to syllabus
Link to WDI
Link to Algeria Chronology
Link to WDI
Link to Encyclopedia of Orient
Link to Encyclopedia of Orient
Link to
Encyclop
edia of
Orient
Map of northern Africa
Algeria Physical
map
Algeria Map
Algeria Ma
Algeria: Important Dates
It can be argued that the first peoples in Algeria are most related to
today’s Berbers.
1830 invaded by France; declared a colony in 1848.
Ottoman control of rural areas had been small.
Land held collectively.
Distinct tax systems for Muslims and French
Growth of vineyards led to turning into grain importer
Citizenship for French, assimiles
2
1839 Local opposition to France led by Abdu I-Qadir (Abd elKader) who declares Jihad against them. He is arrested in
1847 and exiled.
1868 300,000 natives die in 1868-69; drought, locusts, cholera
1870 Rebellion in the Kabylies, led by the son of Abdu I_Qadir.
Meanwhile, France loses war to Germany, and cedes Alsace
Lorain. French people from that region migrate to Algeria,
occupying Kabylies farmland.
1875 Phylloxera sends another wave of immigrants from France
1879 Northern Algeria is declared part of France. Europeans living
there can receive full French citizenship, but Algerians can
only if they renounce Islam.
French cultural policy. Secular, assimilationist. Severe restrictions
on traditional Islamic educational system.
1901 Algeria gets economic autonomy. Settler society is growing,
developing independent identity. Camus (Marguerite Duras
in Indochina)
WWI Algerians drafted into French army, brought to France as
workers. Suggestion that in 1918 1/3 of male Algerians were
in France.
1920s Algerian nationalism grows as Muslims realize they do not
have full equality with Europeans. 1942 Algeria becomes
seat of de Gaulle’s government in exile, as Vichy
government is overthrown.
Concentration of settlers’ farmland, pushing them into cities.
Muslim farmers shift from sharecropping to wage ag. Labor.
Post WWII: nationalist movement develops. 1945 riots in
Constantine.
French settlers had ¼ of land, perhaps ½ of good land.
1954 war for independence, led by FLN, (Front de Libération
Nationale) which was established in Egypt by Algerian
exiles. Characterized by terrorism on both sides. 30,000100,000 French, perhaps1,000,000 Algerians killed in eight
years of fighting. Guerillas were mostly mountain Berbers
1959 President De Gaulle announces that he would allow
Algerians to choose between independence and continued
association with France. Unsuccessful revolts against De
3
Gaulle in France.
1962 Independence. Ahmed Ben Balla forms first government.
Mass emigration of Europeans, abandoning land, draining
skilled labor. Attempts at self-management (autogestion).
Exploitation of petroleum and gas in south; eventually leads
to Dutch disease, hurting agriculture.
Ahmed Ben Balla
Born 1916
President 1963-65
A soldier in the French army
during WWII, he was a founder
of the FLN. Spent several years
in French prisons. Criticized for
inflated ideological rhetoric.
After his overthrow he was kept
under house arrest, then sent
into exile until 1990.
Ahmed Ben Balla
Born 1916
President 1963-65
A soldier in the French army during
WWII, he was a founder of the FLN.
Spent several years in French prisons. Criticized for inflated
ideological rhetoric. Was member of political, not military
wing. After his overthrow he was kept under house arrest,
then sent into exile until 1990.
1965 Ben Balla deposed by his Minister of Defense, Henri
Boumedienne. Assembly is dissolved. Suggestion that
Boumedienne had little interest in Ben Balla’s socialism, or the
bands of guerrillas.
1967 Unsuccessful coup attempt.
Houari Boumedienne
1932-1978
President 1965-1978
Studied at Islamic Institute and
at al-Azhar in Cairo. Had
become a Coronel in the FLN in
1957.
Pursued socialisant policies,
including nationalization of the
petroleum industry.
Died of an obscure blood disease.
Houari Boumedienne 1932-1978
President 1965-1978
Studied at Islamic Institute and at alAzhar in Cairo. Had become a Coronel
in the FLN in 1957. Dour, humorless;
pursued socialisant policies, including
nationalization of the petroleum
industry. Died suddenly of an obscure
blood disease.
1976 Algeria declared socialist state, led by the FLN. Is argued
that FLN was marginalized by Boumedienne; country never
became a Cuba. Ideological class enemy were foreigners, not
4
internal.
1978 Boumedienne dies, succeeded in 1979 by Chadli Benjedid,
who moderated socialist rhetoric, initiated some liberalization—
echoes of infitah, perestroika
Chadli Benjedid
Chadli Benjedid
President 1978-1992
President 1978-1992
Becomes president upon
Boumedienne’s death, pursues a
more moderate line.
Became President on Boumedienne’s
death. Was overthrown/resigned when
his liberalization fell apart.
1980 Rebellions in the Kabyle regions against central government:
Arab cultural and political dominance.
1988 Riots against government in major urban centers. Put down
with much cruelty. Austerity, corruption.
1989 New constitution allows other political parties.
1990 Front Islamique de Salut (FIS) [Islamists] wins local
elections, defeating and therefore embarassing the FLN
1991 FIS does well in first round of national elections, which are
canceled by military, and Benjedid resigns.
1992 Boudiaff brought back as president. He is soon assassinated
because he is too independent.
1994 General Liamine Zeroual appointed president, adopting hard
line against Islamists. FIS is dissolved
Liamine Zeroual
Born 1932
President 1994-99
General who was chosen
President by the military.
His main assignment is to
quell the Islamists.
Liamine Zeroual
Born 1932
President 1994-99
General who was chosen President by
the military. His main assignment
was to quell the Islamists.
Mid-1990s continued internal insecurity, much of it between
government and Islamist groups, such as GIA (Armed Islamic
Group). “Horrific savegry.” Perhaps 50,000-100,000 die, in
what was called the second Islamic war. Suggestion that FIS is
5
an Islamic version of FLN.
1995 Abdelaziz Bouteflika elected president; opposition candidates
had withdrawn before election day.
Abdelaziz Bouteflika
Born 1937
President since 1999
Joined FLN upon finishing
secondary school.
Served as Foreign Minister
to Ben Balla and Boumedienne.
Said to present a more upperclass persona, although he has
moderate policies towards
armed Islamists
Abdelazziz Bouteflika. Born 1937
President since 1999
Joined FLN upon finishing secondary
school. Served as Foreign Minister to
Ben Balla and Boumedienne.
Said to present a more upper-class
persona, although he has moderate
policies towards armed Islamists
Why civil war?
French cultural policy, and French imperial policy. Had sought to
divide Moslems/Arabs/Algerians.
Algeria has to regain Islamic identity from French. Also, many are
Berbers, not interested in Arab identity.
Corruption of rulers. Military are ineffective. Lack of democratic
commitment.
Economic growth led by petroleum. Dutch disease. Rentier
economy.
Algeria: Real GDP/Capita
Algeria: Real GDP/Capita
Algeria
2000
1800
Real GDP/capita
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
Year
Samir Amin, 1931Noted Egyptian social scientist. Trained in Paris. Neo-Marxist, believer
in self-reliance. Author of: Accumulation On a World Scale,
Neo-Colonialism in West Africa, The Arab Nation. Worked for U.N.
Economic Committee of Africa.
New Slide on Samir Amin
6
Algeria: Inflation
Algeria: Inflation
Algeria
35
30
Inflation
25
20
15
10
5
0
-51950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Hectares
8000000
6000000
Land use, arable land
(hectares)
4000000
Land use, irrigated
land (hectares)
2000000
0
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Algeria: Debt Service Ratios
Algeria:
Debt Service Ratios
100
25
80
20
60
15
40
10
20
5
0
1970
Total debt service (%
of exports of goods
and services)
Total debt service (%
of GNI)
Algeria:
Debt
Ratios
Algeria:
Agricultural
GDP
Algeria:
Ag output
1.00E+10
1.00E+09
1.00E+08
1960
1970
1980
1990
Algeria:
Foreign
Aid
Algeria:
Foreign
Aid
20
50
15
40
30
10
20
5
10
0
1980
1990
2000
Foreign
Aid
Year
Seasonal labor migration in French North Africa, 1930
Tunisia Page
Tunisia Chronology
Link to WDI
Link to syllabus
Link to Encyclopedia of the Orient
0
1960
Aid (% of GNI)
Aid per capita
(current US$)
0
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Seasonal labor migration in French
North Africa 1930
Source: Neil Macmaster, “Labour Migration in French North Africa,” in
The Cambridge Survey of World Migration
Tunisia
2000
Year
Aid per capita ($)
10000000
Algeria:
Land Use
Algeria:
Agricultur
al GDP
Log Ag Output
Algeria: Land Use
Aid (% of GNI)
Algeria: Land Use
7
Tunisia:
Roads and
Cities
Tunisia: Topographical
Tunisia: Important Dates:
Home of Carthage.
1881 French protectorate
1920s nationalist agitation; Destour Party formed, calling for
democratic reforms. Quickly disbanded by French.
1934 Neo-Destourian party formed by Bourguiba
1956 Independence under Habib Bourguiba, who is subsequently
President for Life
Habib Bourguiba
Habib Bourguiba
1903-2000
Ruled 1957-1987
Educated in Tunis and at U. of Paris;
married French woman.
Founded Neo-Destour Party.
1903-2000
Ruled 1957-1987
Educated in Tunis and at U. of
Paris; married French woman.
Founded Neo-Destour Party.
Moderate secularist, with echoes
of Ataturk in his policies.
Dynamic personality, but was
in power too long, as his health
gave out. Was eventually
overthrown by his Prime
Minister.
Moderate secularist, with echoes of Ataturk in his policies.
Dynamic personality, but was in power too long, as his health
gave out. Was eventually overthrown by his Prime Minister.
1964 Expropriation of foreign owned lands.
1987 Bourguiba deposed by his Prime Minister, General Zine elAbidine Ben Ali
Sporadic conflicts between Tunisia and Egypt, Libya, Algeria, and
France.
8
Zine el Abidine Ben Ali
Born 1936
President since 1987
Seen as controlling Islamist
radicals, while bringing Islam
back into Tunisian society.
Has maintained international
presence of Tunisia.
Zine el Abidine Ben Ali
Born 1936
President since 1987
Seen as controlling Islamist radicals,
while bringing Islam back into Tunisian
society.
Tunisia: Real GDP/capita
Tunisia: Real GDP/Capita
Tunisia
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Tunisia: Inflation
Tunisia: Inflation
Inflation
Tunisia
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-101935
1945
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
Year
4000000
3500000
3000000
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
1960
Land use, arable land
(hectares)
Land use, irrigated
land (hectares)
1970
1980
1990
2000
Tunisia:
Land Use
Tunisia:
Ag GDP
(WDI)
Tunisia:
Agricultural
GDP
Tunisia:
Ag GDP
10000000000
Log Ag Output
Hectares
Tunisia: Land
Land Use
Tunisia:
Use
1000000000
100000000
1960
1970
20
250
15
200
150
10
100
5
0
1960
-5
50
0
1970
1980
Year
1990
2000
-50
Aid per capita ($)
Aid % of GNI
Tunisia:
Tunisia:Foreign
ForeignAid
Aid
Aid (% of GNI)
Aid per capita
(current US$)
Tunisia:
Foreign
Aid
: Debt
Service
Ratios
1980
1990
2000
Year
Year
Tunisia:
Debt
Service
Ratios
Tunisia:
Debt
Service
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1970
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1980
1990
Year
2000
Total debt service (%
of exports of goods
and services)
Total debt service (%
of GNI)
9
Morocco page
Morocco
Morocco Chronology
Link to syllabus
Link to WDI
Link to Encyclopedia of the Orient
Morocco: Cities and Roads
Morocco
map
Morocco Topographical
Morocco: Important Dates
19th century. European powers gain control over parts of today’s
Morocco
1912 becomes French protecorate
1943 With France under German occupation, the independence
party Istiqlal is formed
1956 independence, under King Muhammad V, who subsequently
separates himself from independence movement (Istiqlal)
Muhammad 5
1909- 1961
Sultan 1927-57, king 1957-61
After winning independence for
Morocco, he is able to maintain
monarchical system, with significant aid
from the military and police.
Muhammad 5
1909 - 1961
Sultan 1927-57, king 1957-61
After winning independence for Morocco, he
is able to maintain monarchical system, with
significant aid from the military and police.
1961 succeeded by his son Hassan II, who rules until 1999
10
King Hassan 2
1929 - 1999
King 1961 – 1999
The oldest son of Muhammad 5,
and father of Muhammad 6.
Studied at schools in Morocco. Had been
head of Royal Armed Forces.
Among the most pro-western leaders of
the region, and most pro-capitalist, while
also clashing with neighboring countries.
Survived several assassination attempts in
the 1970s. Territorial conflicts over Western
Sahara with Mauritania.
King Hassan 2
1929 - 1999
King 1961 – 1999
The oldest son of Muhammad 5, and
father of Muhammad 6.
Studied at schools in Morocco. Had
been head of Royal Armed Forces.
Among the most pro-western leaders of the region, and most procapitalist, while also clashing with neighboring countries.
Survived several assassination attempts in the 1970s. Territorial
conflicts over Western Sahara with Mauritania.
1970s Several assassination attempts against Hassan 2.
1975 Morocco annexes the northern two thirds of Western Sahara.
Armed conflict with Polisario forces from that region, until
1989.
1983 Parliamentary elections are cancelled, due to local unrest
1998 Government formed by opposition politicians, led by
socialists. “Fruit of long process of moderate
democratization.”
1999 Death of Hassan 2, and accession of his relatively young and
unknown son, Mohammad 6.
King
Muhammad 6
Born 1963
King from 1999
Some education in France, and work
with EU Commission in Brussels.
Expected to continue policies
of his father (and grandfather),
especially with regard to Europe
King Muhammad 6
Born 1963
King from 1999
Some education in France, and work
with EU Commission in Brussels.
Expected to continue policies of his
father (and grandfather), especially with
regard to Europe
11
Morocco: Real GDP/Capita
Morocco: Real GDP/Capita
Morocco
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Morocco:
Land Use
Morocco: Land Use
10000000
Hectares
8000000
6000000
Land use, arable land
(hectares)
4000000
Land use, irrigated
land (hectares)
2000000
0
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Morocco:
Land Use
Morocco:
Agricultura
l GDP
Morocco: Ag Output
Morocco: Agricultural GDP
10000000000
Log Ag Output
0
1910
1000000000
1960
1970
Year
60
50
40
30
20
10
Aid per capita $
Aid % of GNI
Morocco: Foreign Aid
Aid (% of GNI)
Aid per capita
(current US$)
0
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Morocco Foreign Aid
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1960
1980
1990
2000
Year
Morocco:
Foreign
Aid
: Debt
Service
Ratios
Morocco: Debt
Debt Service
Morocco:
ServiceRatios
Ratios
50
15
10
Total debt service (%
of exports of goods
and services)
5
Total debt service (%
of GNI)
40
30
20
10
0
1970
0
1980
1990
2000
Year
Morocco: Inflation
Morocco: Inflation
Morocco
70
60
Inflation
50
40
30
20
10
0
-101940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Libya Physical Map
Libya: map of cities and roads
Libya map
1911 Italy attacks, taking control from Ottomans
Post WWII, Britain and France split Libya into zones of influence.
UN sponsors arrangement in which Emir Idris becomes king.
12
1961 Libya begins to produce oil
Libya chronology
Libya Chronology
Mommar Khadafi
Born 1942 in a tent
Ruler since 1969
Studied at Univ. of Libya,
and military school
Led coup against king.
Said to live a frugal life.
Has supported several
armed movements throughout
the Arab world, including
Lockerbie bombing.
Has moderated with age.
Mommar Khadafi
Born 1942 in a tent
Ruler since 1969
Studied at Univ. of Libya, and military
school. Led coup against king. Said to
live a frugal life. Has supported several
armed movements throughout the Arab
world, including Lockerbie bombing.
Has moderated with age.
Has survived several attempts on his
life, (especially from military). US
bombing in 1986.
Libya Inflation Rate
Libya: Inflation Rate
Inflation
Libya
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-51960
-10
-15
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Year
2500000
Hectares
2000000
1500000
Land use, arable land
(hectares)
1000000
Land use, irrigated
land (hectares)
500000
0
1960
1970
1980
Year
1990
2000
Libya Land
Use (WDI)
Ag output not
in WDI
Libya:
Agricultural
Output (FAO)
Libya:
Agricultural
Output Output
(FAO)
Libya:
Agricultural
Agricultural Output (index)
Libya:
Land Use
Libya: Land Use
1000
100
10
1960
1970
1980
Year
1990
2000