Exam Revision
Presented by Andrew Scott
c/o Sacre Coeur
Extended Response
Possibility # 1 – A pseudo Introduction
See 2012 Unit 3 VCAA exam
Solution
2012 Unit 3 VCAA exam
Possibility # 2: A comparison of Research designs
Possibility # 3 – A discussion
Grading the Extended Response
• The median score = 5/10
• The majority of students will score between 3 to 7
• So how to I get above that?
VCA
A
sam
ple
How to write a Discussion – a 10 point
plan for the extended response on Section
C of the exam
1. Conclusion: State whether results are significant/
insignificant
2. State whether hypothesis is supported or not
3. Put the given p value in the following sentence: there is
a _% chance that observed differences between the
means of the groups is due to chance factors
4. Implications: In simple terms did the experiment has
achieved its aim?
5. Identify the experimental design (I.Groups/
Participants/ R.Measures)
How to write a Discussion – a 10 point plan for
the extended response on Section C of the
exam
6.
Critique the experimental design e.g. I.Groups – participantrelated variables/ R.Measures – order effect/ M.Participants – not
all critical factors matched.
7. Suggest how the use of the experimental design can be overcome
e.g. if I.Groups – suggest
a Matched-Participants/
R.Measures
Question
5 S.A 2012
8. Identify & describe a couple of other extraneous variables e.g. a
placebo effect/ experimenter effect/ non-standardised
instructions/
9. Suggest how these variables can be overcome e.g. placebo effect
use a single-blind design
10. Discuss the suitability of generalisations e.g. generalisations to
the wider public can’t be made because of the use of convenience
sampling
Research Methods
Research Hypothesis: Q.6 2011 VCAA exam
People between the ages of 18 and 40 who sleep fewer than 6.5 hours
per night will have a larger Body Mass Index after 12 months than
people who sleep more than 6.5 hours per night
Checklist – 1 mark for each of the following
1. Population: 18-40 year olds
2. DV: Increase in Body Mass Index (BMI)
3. IV: Those who sleep fewer that 6.5 hrs or less vs those who sleep
more than 6.5 hours per night
4. Prediction: sleep deprived groups will have higher BMI
Operationalised Dependent variable & Independent variable
DV
IV
A variable manipulated to test the effect on the DV
A variable which measures the effects of the
manipulation of the IV
•
•
•
When asked to identify the Independent Variable – look for 2 groups
E.g. participants who drink caffeinated drinks vs decaffeinated drinks
E.g. students who listen to Ipods (for off-campus study) vs those who
don’t
•
When asked to identify the Dependent Variable – look for the statistics
– i.e.
learning ability as operationalised as score on 20 word list
Memory ability as operationalised as number of 30 three letter non sense
syllables recalled.
•
•
Research designs
For
1. Independent-groups,
2. Matched-participants &
3. Repeated-measures
Can you
• Explain how data is gathered
• Identify an advantage (in
comparison to alternatives)
• Identify a disadvantage (in
comparison to alternatives)
Matched-participants
Q.13b 2010 VCAA exam
•Matching subjects is time-consuming, hence costly process
•Not all critical factors are matched
•If one member of pair drops out, then results of partner are void
•Coordination/ experience in ‘ball sports’/ catching ability, etc
•If one member of pair had superior natural ability then then this
could have an extraneous/ confounding effect on there results, this
can be overcome by measuring and matching pairs based on similar
abilities for the above
Repeated-measures
Q.14b 2008 Short Answer VCAA exam
Average Score: 0.3/1 (only 32% of the State got 1/1)
It eliminates (or controls) participant related variables. I.e. there is
control over extraneous participant variables.
Q.13c 2006 & Q.12 2010 Short Answer VCAA exam
Average Score: 0.8/2 (only 32% of the State got 2/2)
Counterbalancing- involves arranging the order in which the conditions
of a repeated measures design are completed so that each condition
occurs equally often in each position
Confounding vs Extraneous Variables
Similarity
Difference
Examples
Extraneous variables
Both have an unwanted
effect on the DV
Both occur outside of the
research design
It may affect the DV
At a random point in the
experiment
Participant related
variables
Confounding variables
It has affected the DV
Systematically throughout
the experiment
An order effect
Placebo vs. Experimenter effect
Placebo effect
Expectations
Experimenter effect
Expectations of participants can Actions of the experimenter or
have an unwanted effect on
their personal characteristics may
their behaviour, hence the
bias the results
results
Overcome by Single-blind design
Ensure the subjects are
unaware knowledge of which
group they are in (control or
experimental)
Double-blind procedure
Use an assistant to allocate
participants to groups, so both the
experimenter and the participants
are unaware to the knowledge of
whether they are in the control or
experimental groups.
Making a conclusion
Question 10 – 2012 VCAA exam
•
•
•
•
•
a: Convenience sampling – Not representative of the population of
interest since not all members of the population had an = chance of
being selected
[only 34% of the state received a mark – due to the failure to outline
weakness]
b. None (1 mark)
No p value/ inferential statistic was used (only a descriptive statistic
i.e. the mean)
[only 10% of the state achieved 2/2]
For example: Antipressants vs. Placebo
N = 60
(30 each group)
• Research Hypothesis: Clinically depressed young
adults aged 20-29 who spend 6 weeks on
antidepressants will report a similar level of
improvement in their mental health as young adults
on placebos for the same period.
• Operationalised DV: change in score out of 100 on a
20 question mental health questionnaire
• Operationalised IV: whether participants were on
antidepressants or placebos for the 6 weeks.
Antipressants vs. Placebo
Score on pre-test Score on post-test
out of 100
out of 100
Andipressants
group
Placebo
group
33.3
33.3
Improvement
42.2
8.9
(26.7%)
41.1
7.8
(23.4%)
Statistical significance
• Calculated p value = 0.07
•
The following conclusion is made
1. There is a 7% probability that the difference
in results is due to chance (which is an
insignificant difference)
2. Thus the hypothesis is not supported
3. Implications: Antidepressants are no more
effective for improving the mental health of
young adults aged 20-29 over a 6 week
period
Statistical significance
• Calculated p value = 0.02
•
The following conclusion is made
1. There is a 2% probability that the difference
in results is due to chance (which is a
significant difference)
2. Thus the hypothesis is supported
3. Implications: Antidepressants are effective
for improving the mental health of young
adults aged 20-29 over a 6 week period
Appropriateness of generalisations & conclusions
•
•
•
A Conclusion –a final decision about what the results obtained
from the sample tested mean
E.g. Psych students from BHSSC who listen to podcasts prior to Test
SAC’s perform better than students who don’t.
A Generalisation – is a kind of conclusion that makes a judgement
about the extent to which the research findings can be applied to
the population (from which the sample was drawn)
Reasons why results of an experiment can’t
be generalised
1. Results were not significant
2. Non random selection of participants Sample size is too small
compared to the actual population
3. Non random selection of participants
4. Participant expectancy effects might have contributed to the
outcome (failure to use a single-blind procedure)
5. etc
Ethics - Participants rights
1: nature of research
2: rights
3: risks
4: details of study
Confidentiality
Voluntary
participation
Participants
rights
Key point:
Debriefing done
after the
completion of
Research: See
M.C Q.20 2011
VCAA exam
Informed
consent
Withdrawal
rights
Deception
Debriefing
Subject can withdraw at any
time + results at conclusion of
experiment
When is it allowed
1: ethics committee
2: value of research
3: debriefing
Provide explanation for reason
for deception/ results/
extinguish negative effects/
refer to counseling
The role of the neuron in memory formation
Axon
• The Axon is the conduit that conveys electrochemical
messages (to the axon terminals)
• Dendrites - functions like an antennae - receptors
detect neurotransmitters, they change during memory
formation, they become bushier
• An increase in the amount of neurotransmitters
produced (& released) by the presynaptic neuron
• Greater effects of neurotransmitter at its receptor sites
of the post synaptic neuron (thus the receptors are
more sensitive to incoming messages)
Neural basis of learning
Glutamate & NMDA
• Glutamate is the most abundant excitatory
neurotransmitter in the nervous system
• It plays a key role in learning (LTP), highly
concentrated in Hippocampus
• Stored in the vesicles of the presynaptic
neuron, nerve impulses (action potential)
triggers the release of Glutamate into the
synapse it then binds with specialised
receptors - NMDA (N-methyl D-aspartate)
found on the dendrites of the postsynaptic
neuron
• Evidence: Morris water maze experiment NDMA blocked - rats unable to spatially
learn (no LTP)
Developmental plasticity
• Developmental plasticity is a result of
genetics & experience
1. Proliferation: cells divide & multiple
during fetal development
2. Synaptogenesis: the rapid expansion in
synaptic development in order to deal
with bombardment of sensory input.
3. Synaptic pruning: reduction in synaptic
connections to enable more efficient
neurotransmission, occurring in different
parts of the brain as the cease being used
4. Neural Migration occurs from 8 weeks to
29 weeks (i.e. movement of neurons to
different parts of the brain
5. Myelination starts during fetal
development through to adolescence (a
process of protecting & insulating neurons
to aid the transmission of impulses from 1
nerve cell to the next)
Adaptive plasticity
• Refers to the brains ability to
compensate for lost functionality
due to brain damaged & change as a
result of everyday experience
• Adaptive plasticity enables brains to
adapt (by growing) for individuals
with the acquisition of expertise in a
certain area e.g. Students, Cab
drivers (learning the layout of a
city), bilinguals, musicians, etc.
• Adaptive plasticity is maintained
across the lifespan, but usually
quicker during childhood
• Rerouting: new neural connections
are made
• Sprouting: growth of new dendritic
fibres
Sensitive period vs
Critical periods
Sensitive periods
Critical periods
During development there
are specific times when a
biological event is more
‘sensitive’ to
environmental stimuli
Refers to a finite period in which an
organism has heightened sensitivity to
external stimuli that are compulsory for
development of a particular skill
Starts and
ends
Gradually
abruptly
During the
period
It is a period of maximal
sensitivity
The organism has heightened sensitivity to
external stimuli that are compulsory for
development of a particular skill
After the
period
The skill can still be
learned, but less
efficiently
The cortical areas allocated for the
particular skill will adapt and perform a
different function.
Examples
Language development
Development of binocular vision (from @
8 months to 3 years)
Defined
Experience Expectant vs Experience Dependent Learning
Experience expectant learning
Experience dependent learning
the brain ‘expects’ and is primed for
exposure to the environmental
‘experience’ resulting in a rewiring of
the brain
refers to additional skills developed
over the lifespan (that the brain
doesn’t expect
Early in life
Over the lifespan in response to
complex environmental stimuli
During the ‘Sensitive Periods’
There is no optimal period i.e. It
occurs over the lifespan
Language
Development of primary language
(the brain expects to be exposed to
language)
Development of 2nd Language (it is
dependent on exposure to
environmental stimuli)
General or
Specific
General – e.g. We are all exposed to
visual stimuli
Unique to individuals e.g. Exposure
to igloo building at a young age for
eskimos
Definition
Stage of Lifespan
that structural
modifications
occur
During which
period
Exam Acronym: PLEE: Primary Language - Experience expectant; SLED Second Language
Experience Dependent
Alzheimer’s Disease
• Area of the brain affected: Hippocampus
(medial temporal lobe), then spreads to the
prefrontal area & so on
• Retention: Recall affected before
recognition
• STM/ Working mem - decline
• LTM: Declarative affected before
Procedural
Neural
Cause
• A gradual degeneration of the brains neurons, brain tissue that
shrinks & eventually dies.
• Presence of – Amyloid plaques –
• Build up of neurofibillary tangles (proteins with neurons)
• Reduced levels of Acetylcholine
Neural cause of Alzheimer's: APRANT (Amyloid Plaque; Reduced Acetylcholine; Neurofibrillary
Tangles)
Short Answer Questions
Multi-Choice Average
Short-Answer/ Extended
response
Total Average
2011 – Unit 4
76.4%
50.4%
63.4%
2012 – Unit 3
70.0%
46.4%
58.2%
• Historically – students perform significantly
better on the Multi-choice questions in
comparison to the written questions i.e. 50%
better of Choice
This is largely due to
1. a lack of application of knowledge,
2. a lack of detail in response,
3. a failure to address the key criteria of the
question
4. a lack of understanding of the content
Command terms in last year’s Unit 3 & 4 exams
Marks allocated
Score
Identify/ which/ name
6
85%
Identify & Link response to scenario
6
67%
Identify & explain/ describe/ justify/ provide reasons
8
56%
Using an example - explain
6
55%
Describe & link to scenario
16
51%
Compare/ distinguish/ how is it different
9
41%
Define
3
40%
Explain/ describe/ how does../ outline..
11
33%
Identifying Questions (sometimes they are hard)
Q.7c 2009 Short Answer VCAA exam
i: Sight of the grapes:
Only 22% scored 1/1
ii: Feeling nauseous at Sight of the grapes: Only 41% scored 1/1
iii: Feeling nauseous due to virus:
Only 26% scored 1/1
Using examples - explain
Q.10 2008 Short Answer VCAA exam
Average Score: 0.6/2 (only 17% of the State got 2/2)
Definition: The learner must want to perform behaviour. (1
mark)
Example: Performing a dance move after watching ‘so you
think you can dance’ (1 mark)
Exam tip: Responses that stated that the learner must be
motivated to learn did not earn marks (that overlaps with
attention).
Explain & link to scenario
Q.2 2006 S.Answer exam
Average Score: 1.2/3 (only 14% of the State got 3/3)
Define: In order for new info to be transferred from STM to LTM, there needs to be a
period of time for these memories to be fortified (consolidated) (1 mark)
A neural (or chemical) change occurs in the brain thereby a memory trace is formed
when something new is learned. (1 mark)
Link: The football match should not have interrupted the consolidation process as
the two types of information (road rules and footy match) are sufficiently different
not to interfere with each other, thus Connor should have been able to remember
the information (road rules) the following morning.
Exam tip: Make sure you provide a conclusion when asked for one e.g. Connor could
either recall the information or there was a disruption to the consolidation process
thus adversely affecting his ability to recall the information
Comparing questions
Question 5 S.A 2012 VCAA
Stats: Average 1.0 out of 3 – only 10% scored 3/3 (43% scored 0/0)
The question specifies that the elderly are healthy – which eliminates discussion of
Alzheimer’s disease, amnesia, etc.
Students failed to make a meaningful comparison between both elderly and young –
use of tables are good in this case.
Young person
Elderly person
Recall
Higher
Lower
CNS function
Faster
Slower
Motivation &
Confidence
Myelination
Higher
Lower
Complete
Myelin loss – thus decreasing protection of axon, insulation
and speed and efficiency of neural transmission
So what should I be looking for when
reading short-answer questions
• The key words – e.g. from the 2009 VCAA U3 Exam
Cognitive change: memory distortions/ difficulty paying attention/
problem solving difficulties (not can’t solve problems), etc.
Perceptual change: Reduced perception too vague (not paid)
Altered perceptions of pain/ heightened/diminished sensitivity to other
sensory stimuli.
35% scored 2/2
Q.4 2011 VCAA exam
1. Structure: Words presented to left visual field are processed in Right Hemisphere
2. Findings: Patients can’t name them
3. Cognitive processes: The Right Hemisphere can identify words but not verbalise
them
1. Structure: Words presented to right visual field are processed in left Hemisphere
2. Findings: Patients can name the words.
3. Cognitive processes: The Left Hemisphere can identify and verbalise them
Spatial Neglect
Question 11 S.A VCAA 2012
Stats: Average 0.9 out of 2 – only 35% scored 2/2 (44% scored 0/0)
Many students made reference to the failure to see the left side of their
environment, which is incorrect. Their eyes can detect the light, the visual cortex
processes the image, but they fail to attend to it. Marks allocated for identifying
1.
2.
Right parietal lobe
Failure to attend to (or ignores) the left side of their environment/ body
Q.7 2011 Short Answer VCAA exam
Episodic Buffer: retrieves knowledge of times tables from LTM to work out how
much each customer needs to pay
Central Executive: Controls the man’s attention to enable calculation to be made – or
• Integrates & manipulates information from phonological loop or visuo spatial
sketchpad e.g. visual images of the relevant multiplication – or –
• Instructs the episodic buffer to access product rules from LTM.
Forgetting theories
Retrieval failure - Question 8b S.A 2012
Stats: Average 0.7 out of 2 – only 5% scored 2/2 (33% scored 0/0)
2 points were required for 2 marks
1. Info in LTM can only be retrieved with the right cue
2. It demonstrates that partial retrieval can occur, thus retrieval from LTM is not an
‘all or nothing’ process
3. Info in LTM is organised in an interconnected (semantic) network, the right
retrieval cue will eventually enable the correct information to be recalled
State-dependent cues
Question 10 S.A 2012
Stats: Average 0.9 out of 2 – only 37% scored 2/2 (44% scored 0/0)
The response needed to be linked to the scenario & provide an example that was
clearly distinguishable from a context (external environmental) cue. Marks paid for
references to -
1.
2.
Internal environment
E.g. anxiety, nervous, stressed, excited, etc……
Loftus – reconstructive nature of memory –
Question 9b S.A 2012
Stats: Average 0.8 out of 2 – only 15% scored 2/2 (41% scored 0/0)
The response needed to be linked to the scenario,
1. Memories are reconstructed over time
2. They were altered by William’s revisitation of the memory when he gave his
written statement and his eyewitness testimony in court.
Q.4 2008 Short Answer VCAA exam
Average Score: 0.8/2 (only 23% of the State got 2/2)
Define: Echoic memory stores impressions of sound for 3-4
seconds for each impression to slightly overlap the next
impression. (1 mark)
Link: Echoic memory also acts as a filter, the rapid fading
prevents words from overlapping excessively and becoming
jumbled up when we pay attention to them. (1 mark)
Exam tip: Look at the number of marks on offer and make the
same number of distinct points. Make sure your response fully
addresses all aspects of the question, in this case (1) function/role
of Echoic memory, (2) hearing words rather than meaningful sounds
E.g.. Question 7 S.A 2012 VCAA exam
Stats: Average 1.1 out of 3 – only 9% scored 3/3 (44% scored 0/0)
The example needed to cover the following 3 points
1. Hierarchical structure (not a purely horizontal structure/ flowchart)
2. Nodes (concepts)
3. Connected by meaningful links
Observational Learning:
Q.8a 2007 Short Answer VCAA exam
Average Score: 0.4/1 (only 40% of the State got 1/1)
• We learn through observing the consequences of others
behaviour, whether they be reinforced or punished
(Observational learning).
• Learning in which behaviour becomes controlled by its
consequences is operant conditioning.
Application of Biopsychosocial framework to understanding
the relationship between stress and wellbeing
Q.9b 2011 VCAA exam
Ave: 0.8/2 (only 8% of students scored 2/2)
• Mental health and physical health are now see as united concepts
• It looks at the interaction of biological, psychological & sociocultural factors on a
case by case scenario
• It is a functional model of health & well being (rather than the merely medical
model of health & well being)
1 mark per point
Q.3a 2011 VCAA exam
Ave: 1.7/4 (only 4% of students scored 4/4)
Stella:
Threat: she is felling overwhelmed – or –
Harm: that may occur now or the future
Audrey:
Challenge: She can gain from the Year 12 experience – or –
Irrelevant: the situation is intially assessed as irrelevant
1 mark for identifying Threat, harm, challenge, irrelevance
1 mark for explanation (which must link to response
Q.3a 2011 VCAA exam
Ave: 0.7/3 (only 3% of students scored 3/3)
1. Stella given info about an autonomic physiological response e.g.
HR
2. She uses taught strategies e.g. calming thoughts to help her lower
response
3. Continued presentation of the information can help her create
desirable physiological changes – lower HR. as measured by
biofeedback device