EXPLORING
PSYCHOLOGY
EIGHTH EDITION IN MODULES
David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2011
Thinking, Language, and
Intelligence
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Thinking
Module 22
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Concepts
Solving Problems
 Obstacles to Problem Solving
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Making Decisions and Forming
Judgments
 Using and Misusing Heuristics
 Overconfidence
 THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: The
Fear Factor—Do We Fear the Right
Things?
 The Belief Perseverance Phenomena
 The Perils and Powers of Intuition
 The Effects of Framing
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Thinking
Cognition refers to all the mental processes
associated with thinking, knowing,
understanding, remembering, and
communicating.
Cognitive psychologists study these activities.
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Concepts
A concept is a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas,
or people. There are a variety of chairs but their common
features define the concept of a chair.
We often form concepts by developing prototypes - mental
images or best examples that incorporates all the features we
associate with a category.
It takes a bit longer to categorize a penguin as a bird because it does not
closely match the prototype.
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Solving Problems
Problem solving strategies include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Trial and Error
Algorithms
Heuristics
Insight
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Algorithms
Algorithms, which are time consuming, exhaust
all possibilities before arriving at a solution.
Computers use algorithms.
SPLOYOCHYG
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word
using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,200 possibilities.
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Heuristics
B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images
Heuristics are simple,
thinking strategies
that allow us to make
judgments and solve
problems efficiently.
Heuristics are less
time consuming, but
more error-prone than
algorithms.
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Insight
Insight involves a sudden
novel realization of a
solution to a problem.
Humans and animals have
insight.
Brain imaging and EEG
studies suggest that when
an insight strikes (the
“Aha” experience), it
activates the right
temporal cortex (JungBeeman & others, 2004).
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Obstacles to Problem Solving
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for
information that confirms a personal bias.
2–4–6
Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 – 2 – 3 would
comply. Wason’s students had difficulty figuring out the
rule due to a confirmation bias (Wason, 1960).
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Obstacles to Problem Solving
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh
perspective, impeding problem solving.
One example is a mental set, a tendency to approach
a problem in one particular way. Sometimes, a
mental set based on what worked in the past
precludes our finding a new solution to a new
problem.
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The Matchstick Problem
Our mental set from our past experiences with
matchsticks predisposes our arranging them in two
dimensions.
To arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles, you14
must view the problem from a new perspective.
Making Decision & Forming
Judgments
Psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman (1974)
researched the representativeness and availability heuristics and
showed how these generally helpful shortcuts can lead even
the smartest people into dumb decisions.
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Amos Tversky
Daniel Kahneman
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms
of how well they seem to represent, or match, a
particular prototype is using the representativeness
heuristic.
If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses
Probability
that what
that person
a truck
is far
and
likes poetry,
do youisthink
hisdriver
profession
greater
than an ivy league professor just because
would
be?
there are more truck drivers than such professors.
An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?
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Availability Heuristic
Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray?
Whatever increases the ease of retrieving
information increases its perceived availability.
When statistical reality is pitted against a single
vivid case, the memorable case often wins.
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The Fear Factor – Do We Fear the
Right Things?
Due to the nature of fear, the 9/11 attacks lead many to fear
flying more than driving, consequently, more people died in
traffic accidents.
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Overconfidence
Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and
the inclination to explain failures increase our
overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to
overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and
judgments.
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The Belief Perseverance
Phenomenon
Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to
our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.
It often fuels social conflict. If you see that a
country is hostile, you are likely to interpret
their ambiguous actions as a sign of hostility.
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Perils & Powers of Intuition
Intuition, an effortless, immediate, automatic
feeling or thought, may be perilous if unchecked, but
may also be extremely efficient and adaptive.
Experienced chick sexers often feel as if they are working on
intuition.
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The Effects of Framing
Decisions and judgments may be
significantly affected depending upon how
an issue is framed, or presented.
Example: What is the best way to market
ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?
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