Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Introduction & Background
Thinking: Introduction
We’ve looked at how we:
• Receive information into the brain
(sensation)
• Perceive information (perception/encoding)
• Encode, store, and retrieve information
(memory)
• Retrieve information (retrieval)
• Adapt to our environment (learning)
Now looking at how our cognitive system uses
this information
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Introduction & Background
Thinking: Introduction
Cognition
Mental activities associated with:
• processing
• understanding
• remembering
• communicating
• etc
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Introduction & Background
Thinking: Introduction
Cognition
Describes how we:
1. Create concepts/schema
2. Solve problems
3. Make decisions
4. Form judgments
Above are the four major concepts in thinking
Metacognition
• Thinking about thinking
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Introduction & Background
Reasoning
• The act/ process of drawing conclusions
from facts, evidence, etc.
• Basis of all logical thinking
• Two types
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Introduction & Background
Reasoning
1. Inductive reasoning
• General law or principle is inferred from
what has been observed
• Starting with specific, working you way to
the general
Example:
Every cat you encounter has whiskers, fur,
four legs, purrs, you can infer that all cats
have whiskers, fur, four legs, etc.
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Introduction & Background
Reasoning
2. Deductive reasoning
• Working you way to the specific, starting
with the general
• Based on a premise
Example:
If you encounter a purring animal, with
whiskers, fur, four legs, etc. probably a cat
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Introduction & Background
Convergent & divergent thinking
Convergent thinking
• Unique solution to a problem
• Involves analytical, deductive, logical
thinking
• Usually based on previously learned
information
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Introduction & Background
Convergent & divergent thinking
Divergent thinking
• More than one solution to a problem
• Involves creativity, imagination
• “Thinking outside the box”
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Background: Units of Knowledge
Units of knowledge that make up the
components that work together to process
information and create thoughts
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Concepts
What is a Concept?
Mental grouping of similar:
• objects
• events
• ideas
• people
• etc
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Concepts
Why do we need Concepts?
One concept explains/covers something that
would take many words to describe
Example:
He was angry
or
Need to describe: Facial expression, vocal
intensity, gestures, words, etc.
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Concepts
Why do we need Concepts?
Instead of naming each type of ball, we can
just say “ball” and that concept covers all
of them.
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Concepts
Examples of concepts
• Schadenfreude: pleasure derived from the
misfortunes of others
• L’esprit de l’escalier: thinking of a
comeback when it’s too late
• Au revoir vs. adieu
One concept covers that whole idea
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Hierarchies
Concepts can be broken down into more
specific concepts
Three levels:
• Superordinate
• Basic
• Subordinate
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Hierarchies
1st level
Superordinate
• Major concept
• The most broad
• The umbrella term
Example:
produce
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Hierarchies
2nd level
Basic
• An example of the superordinate
Example:
apple
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Hierarchies
3rd level
Subordinate
• An example of the basic
• A specific type of the basic concept
Example:
Granny Smith Apples
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
• Best example of a certain
concept/category
• The mental image that comes to mind
when you think of a certain
concept/category
• Includes all the features we associate
with the concept/category
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
For some people, the prototype of produce
was apples
For some, it was grapes.
Each person’s prototype is different.
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Prototype
Example
• Bird
different
of a bird
Characteristics
• Wings
• Flies
• Two legs
• Beak
• Feathers
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Each of us has a
prototype
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
Each of these is a prototype of a bird.
Has the characteristics we associate with a
bird:
• Wings
• Flies
• Two legs
• Beak
• Feathers
However, what about…
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
• Wings – yes, but very small
• Flies – um, no
• Two legs - yup
• Beak – more of a snout
• Feathers – yes, but they’re hair like
Is the kiwi still a bird?
Yes, but probably wouldn’t fit many people’s
prototype of a bird
• Some examples might not fit our prototype
• Some birds are “birdier” than others…
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Schemas
• Prototypes involve schemas
• Mental model of what we expect in a
particular situation
• Built using experiences, etc.
• Top-down processing
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
Assimilation
• Interpreting new experiences based on
one’s:
• Existing schema
• Current understanding
• Prior learning
• Top-down processing
• You’re assimilating a new experience into
your schema
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
Assimilation
Example
• Dogs are four-legged, furry animals
• Any animal with four legs and fur is a dog
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Prototype
Assimilation
It’s a dog!
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Prototype
Assimilation
It’s a dog!
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
Example
• Dogs are four-legged, furry animals
• Any animal with four legs and fur is a dog
• Yes, dogs are four-legged, furry animals
• But they’re not the only four-legged furry
animals
• The boy needs to change his schema
regarding four-legged, furry animals to
accommodate cats.
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
Accommodation
• Adapting one’s current schema to
incorporate new information
• We adjust our schemas to fit new
information
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
Accommodation
Example
•Realize that not all four legged animals are
dogs
•Need to refine/redefine the category
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
Accommodation
Example
• Need to change our schema to include
whales as mammals
• Warm blooded
• Has fur
• Nurses its young
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
Assimilation
Example
•An animals has:
•Webbed feet
•Bill
•Lays eggs
•Lives in water most of its life
•Based on our schema, we would probably
guess “duck” or “goose”
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Units of Knowledge
Prototype
Accommodation
Example
• Need to change our schema to include
platypuses as mammals
• Warm blooded
• Has fur
• Nurses its young
• Despite the fact that it has webbed feet,
lays eggs, and spends most of its time in
water…
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Solving problems
Problem
• Any situation that is different from a
desired goal
• Two types:
1. Well-defined problems
2. Ill-defined problems
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Solving problems
Well-defined problems
The following are all clearly specified:
• Starting point/position
• Allowable operations/steps
• Goal
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Solving problems
Well-defined problems
Other criteria:
• Unique solution exists
• Operations/steps are finite
• Solved using algorithm
• Uses convergent thinking
Examples:
• Chess game
• Math problem
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Solving problems
Ill-defined problems
The following may not be clearly specified:
• Starting point/position
• Allowable operations/steps
• Goal
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Solving problems
Ill-defined problems
Other criteria:
• Unique solution does not exist
• Operations/steps are infinite
• Solved using heuristic approach
• Can’t use algorithm
• Uses divergent thinking
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Solving problems
Ill-defined problems
Examples:
• Solving world hunger
• Alternative energy
• Ending poverty in the US
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Methods of solving problems
Algorithm
• Defined, step-by-step approach
• Methodical, logical rule/procedure
• Systematic method
• Formula
• Applying rules that guarantee a solution
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Methods of solving problems
Algorithm
Example: Looking for chutney in a
supermarket
• Look in aisle #1
• If not there, look in aisle #2
• If not there, look in aisle #3
• Keep going about it that way until you find
the chutney
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Methods of solving problems
Heuristic approach
• Simple, efficient rule; “Rule of thumb”
• Uses top-down-processing
• Based on past experience
• Doesn’t look at other approaches
• Doesn’t guarantee a result
• Though, can be faster than algorithm
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Methods of solving problems
Heuristic approach
• Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman
• Availability & representative heuristics
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Methods of solving problems
Heuristic approach
Example: Looking for chutney in a
supermarket
• Look in foreign food section
• If not there, look in condiment section
• If not there, look in gourmet section
• Maybe ask someone
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Methods of solving problems
Heuristic approach
Example: Looking for chutney in a
supermarket
• Based on past experience/knowledge of
where you think it would be
• After that, maybe use algorithm approach
and look in each section
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Types of heuristics
Means-end analysis
• Problems with an identifiable beginning and
an end
• Know what the beginning is
• Know what the end is
• Need to figure out how to get from one to
the other
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Types of heuristics
Means-end analysis
Example:
• Getting somewhere in a new city
• You know where you’re starting from
• You know where you’re trying to get to
• Just need to figure what streets to use to
get from point A to point B
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Types of heuristics
Working backwards/backwards
planning/reverse engineering
• Problems with an identifiable end, but not
always an identifiable beginning
• Start with the solution, work backwards
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Types of heuristics
Working backwards/backwards
planning/reverse engineering
Example:
• Teaching
• Make the test first
• Work backwards on how to convey that
information
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Methods of solving problems
Trial and error
• Guessing at random
• Little to no reasoning or thought
Example: Finding chutney in a supermarket
• Look in aisle #3,
• If not there, look in aisle #8
• If not there, look in aisle #2
• Etc.
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Methods of solving problems
Insight
• Flash of inspiration
• No strategy involved
• The “a-ha” moment
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Methods of solving problems
Brainstorming
• Coming up with as many possible solutions
as they come to mind
• Doesn’t matter how ridiculous or
improbably they are
• Just let your mind go and come up with as
many solutions as you can
• Usually done with a time limit
• Sometimes the more people, the better
• Pick out the workable solutions
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Methods of solving problems: Conclusion
• Much problem solving is a combination of
several of these methods
Example
• Many doctors use trial & error when
prescribing medication
• However, uses a heuristic to narrow down the
options
• “This person has shingles, and most people
responded well to this medication”
• Or, it didn’t work, maybe I’ll try this
medication now
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Solving Problems
Methods of solving problems: Conclusion
• Not all methods will work on all problems
Example
• Figuring out how to pay your monthly bills
• Trial and error probably not a good solution
• Means-end analysis or working backwards
might be a better solution
What problem solving technique is being used?
Example #1
When invited over someone’s house for dinner, it is considered polite to
bring a bottle of wine. But if you know nothing about wine, how do you
decide what type to buy?
Red, because it doesn’t need to be chilled
If you bring a bottle of white wine chilled, you’re presuming that it is be
served at dinner, which is presumptuous. The host probably already
has wine picked out, plus you don’t know what the host is serving and
if your wine would go with that meal
If you bring a bottle of white wine unchilled and the host does want to
serve it, than has to find a way to chill it quickly
How much to spend? Take your age, divide by half. The older you are,
better job, more can pay. So, If you’re 24, you’ll buy a $11 bottle of
red wine.
Picking out the wine. Pretty much any store you go into, any $11 bottle
of red wine will be good.
Or, ask the person “I want a bottle of red wine, but I don’t want to
spend more than $11
What problem solving technique might you use?
Example #2
Need to think of a birthday gift for
your younger brother
What problem solving technique might you use?
Example #3
Need to think of a good way to ask
your girlfriend/boyfriend to the
prom
What problem solving technique is being used?
Example #4
Trying to convert Celsius to
Fahrenheit, but can’t remember
the exact formula
• Double it, add 32
Or
• 0 C = 32 F & 37 C = 98.6 F,
estimate it based on that
What problem solving technique might you use?
Example #5
You’re on the committee to come up
with prom themes and you can’t
think of any good ones
What problem solving technique might you use?
Example #6
You’re trying to figure how many 1’ x
1’ tiles to buy to tile the flour of
your basement
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Obstacles in problem solving
Background
• Sometimes solution may elude us
• Not because there isn’t a solution or
because the problem is difficult
• But because of our cognitive tendencies
• There is a flaw in our thinking
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Obstacles in problem solving
Confirmation bias
• Tendency to search for information that
confirms our beliefs
• Ignore/discount information against our
beliefs
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Obstacles in problem solving
Confirmation bias
When we have made a decision or hypothesis:
• We will actively seek information which will
confirm our decision or hypothesis.
• We will also avoid things which will
disconfirm this.
We do this to avoid being wrong or making a
wrong decision
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Obstacles in problem solving
Confirmation bias
Examples:
• Buy something and we think that we’ve paid
too much
• Look at Nordstrum or Saks Fifth Avenue at
the price
• Not at Wal-Mart or Target
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Obstacles in problem solving
Confirmation bias
Examples:
• Asking advice after you’ve made the
decision
• Not really asking for advice (because you’ve
already made the decision)
• You’re looking for confirmation that you
made the right decision
• Avoid people who will probably tell you that
you made the wrong decision
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Obstacles in problem solving
Fixation
• Inability to see problem from another
perspective
• Resistance to look at problem from another
angle
Example:
Will try one method, but if doesn’t work, still
continue to try it
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Kinds of Fixation
Mental set
• Tendency to approach a problem in a
certain way
• Usually based on past experience, so topdown processing
• “It worked this way in the past, it should
work this time!”
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Kinds of Fixation
Mental set
• Can be good or bad
• May work, so solution found quickly
• May not work this time, but keep trying
anyway
• Similar to perceptual set
• Perceptual set predisposes what we
perceive
• Mental set predisposes how we think
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Kinds of Fixation
Mental set
Example
• Come to a door
• In the past, you’ve found that you either
push a door or pull a door to open it
• You push the door, it doesn’t open
• You pull the door, it opens
• Solution was quickly found
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Kinds of Fixation
Mental set
Example
• Come to another door
• Push and pull on the door, it doesn’t open
• Continue to push and pull on the door, still
doesn’t open, but you continue to push and pull
on it
• Don’t think that the door could be:
• A sliding door
• Locked
• Stuck
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Kinds of Fixation
Functional fixedness
• Tendency to think of things only in terms
of their usual function
Example
• Dime for a screwdriver
• Piece of paper for a dustpan
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Obstacles in Solving Problems
Kinds of Fixation
Functional fixedness
• Karl Duncker
• Candle mounting problem
• In the problem, most people don’t think of
the box of matches as anything other than
something to keep matches in
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
Making decisions & Forming judgments
• Each day, hundreds of decisions and
judgments
• People rarely take time to reason/think
things out
• Usually do it by intuition/seat of their
pants
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
Heuristics
• Use mental shortcuts to make
decisions & form judgments
• Based on past experience
• Just like with solving problems,
heuristics can be the quickest way,
but aren’t always correct
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
Types of heuristics
Availability heuristic
• Base judgments on information available in
our memories
• If information comes to mind easily, it
must be important/common
• Estimate the probability of event based on
how easy it is to think of examples of that
event
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
Types of heuristics
Availability heuristic
• To judge something based on available
information in our brains
• Oversimplification
• Causes us to overestimate the likely
hood of something happening, etc.
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
Types of heuristics
Availability heuristic
• Using the availability heuristic, people
would judge the probability of events
by the ease in which instances could
be brought to mind
• Thus, using the availability heuristic,
people would judge an event to be
more likely to occur if they could think
of more examples of that event
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
Types of heuristics
Availability heuristic
Example
• Does the letter “k” appear more often as
the first or third letter of a word?
• Because we can think of more words that
begin with “k” than have “k” as the third
letter, we assume that more begin with “k’
• But in fact, more words have “k” as the
third letter.
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
Types of heuristics
Availability heuristic
Example
• Do more people die from H1N1 vs. regular
flu?
2009
• H1N1: 15,000 deaths worldwide
• Regular seasonal flu: 250,000 to 500,000
worldwide annually
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
Types of heuristics
Representative heuristic
• Based on prototypes & our schema
• Judge something based on how well they
represent particular prototypes
• People assess the frequency of a particular
event based solely on the generalization of
a previous similar event
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
Types of heuristics
Representative heuristic
• Assessment of the degree a sample and a
population correspond
• Common instances are more representative
than infrequent events
• Stereotyping
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
Types of heuristics
Representative Heuristics
• To judge likelihood of something, compare
it to something in our schema
• If it matches, we go with that
• Don’t usually take time to reason it out
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
What type of heuristic is being used?
How we make decisions & form judgment
At a previous job, I worked with a
wine & spirits importer. One of
our clients wanted to bring his
wine into the port of Baltimore
during the winter months and then
truck them in a heated truck up to
his warehouse in New York. This
is because Baltimore is a southern
port.
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
What type of heuristic is being used?
How we make decisions & form judgment
My father-in-law lives in up-state New York.
The trip via the New Jersey turnpike takes
only about seven hours, and to go through
Pennsylvania takes about nine hours.
He usually goes through Pennsylvania, despite
the fact it takes longer, because once
twenty years ago he got stuck in an icestorm and the trip from Washington to
home took fourteen hours.
What type of heuristic is being used?
How we make decisions & form judgment
Which one of these is a drummer?
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Overconfidence
• Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of
one’s
• Knowledge
• Beliefs
• Abilities
• We’re usually more confident than right
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Overconfidence
Combination of:
• Use of heuristics
• Confirmation bias
• Knack for explaining away failures
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Overconfidence
Examples
• Underestimate amount of time needed to
complete a task
• Read a chapter, write a paper, etc.
• Despite past experience to the contrary,
people still tend to underestimate these
things
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Overconfidence
It’s been found:
• If told by someone else, people tend to reevaluate time needed
• However, left on their own, often don’t
learn from experience
Related to:
• Memory construction
• Hindsight bias
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Framing
• How an issue is framed affect people
decisions & judgments
• Presenting the same option in different
formats can alter people’s decisions.
Related to:
• Wording-effect with surveys
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Framing
Example:
What would you rather have next to your
house?
• A dump
• A landfill
• County-transfer station
What would you rather own?
• A used car
• Certified pre-owned vehicle
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Framing
Example:
Disease has a ten percent fatality rate
There is a vaccine, however, there is a one in
ten chance that you’ll die from side effects
from the vaccine
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Belief bias
• Tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to
distort logical reasoning
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Belief bias
As a result:
• Invalid conclusions seem valid; valid
conclusions seem invalid
• Tendency to see illogical conclusion if it
runs counter to our beliefs
• Tendency not to see illogical conclusion if it
agrees with our beliefs
• Tendency to accept conclusions that agree
with our opinions
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Belief bias
Example:
I will accept that some good ice skaters
are not professional hockey players,
but will reject an assertion that some
professional hockey players are not
good ice skaters.
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Belief bias
Example:
Researchers asked illiterate farmers in
Central Asia: "In the far north, where there
is snow, all bears are white. Novaya Zamlya is
in the far north. What color are the bears
there?"
The responses were such as, "I don't know...
I've only seen black bears, but not others, so
I would say black.”
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Belief Perseverance Phenomenon
• Form of belief bias
• Tendency to cling to beliefs in the face of
contrary evidence
• Once beliefs are formed, takes more
evidence to change that belief then it took
to create the belief in the first place.
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Belief Perseverance Phenomenon
Once beliefs are formed, takes more
compelling evidence to change them then it
took to create the belief in the first place.
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Belief Perseverance Phenomenon
Example
• Columbus
• People at the time of Columbus accepted that the world
was spherical
• It was just thought that the earth was smaller than it
was; the Americas was not between Europe and Asia
• However, most people still believe that most people in
Europe in 1492 thought the world was flat and Columbus
was one of the first to believe that it was spherical
• Greeks theorized that it was spherical as far back as 3rd
century BC
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Making decisions & Forming judgments
How we make decisions & form judgment
Belief Perseverance Phenomenon
Example
• Obama not born in the US
• Despite being shown copies of birthcertificate
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence
• Science of designing & programming
computers to simulate human thought
processes
• Read the book
Unit X: Thinking & Language
Thinking: Conclusion
Conclusion
• Importance of critical thinking
• Easy to make mistakes, the wrong decisions
• Sound, logical reasoning important